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*MBLEX* > A&P > Flashcards

A&P Flashcards

1
Q

Levels of organization

A

Chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, system, organism.

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2
Q

Internal stability or balance

A

Homeostasis

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3
Q

Physiologic effect

A

Changes to tissues, organs, or systems

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4
Q

Structural effects (mechanical effects)

A

Physical changes that occur in the muscle and connective tissues of the body, such as stretching, loosening, or broadening.

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5
Q

Systemic effects (reflexive effects)

A

Regional or body-wide responses mediated by cellular, circulatory, endocrine, and/or nervous system processes.
-decreased pain
-edema reduction (swelling)
-improved local fluid movement

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6
Q

Integumentary system functions (5)

A

•Regulates body temp
•Protects from infections and harmful substances
•Waste excretion
•Vitamin D production
•Sensation

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7
Q

Skeletal system functions

A

-Blood cell production
-Allows movement
-Provides structure
-Stores minerals
-Protects organs

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8
Q

Muscular system functions

A

-Contraction
-Maintains posture
-Creates movement
-Generates heat

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9
Q

Cardiovascular system functions

A

-Carries oxygen and nutrients
-Transports wastes
-Promotes immune responses
-Pumps blood throughout the body

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10
Q

Lymphatic system functions

A

-Aids in healing and resisting disease
-Helps maintain fluid balance

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11
Q

Nervous system functions

A

-Bodys control center
-Communicates body system info
-Coordinates body responses

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12
Q

Endocrine system functions

A

-Glands and hormones
-Growth and development
-Reproduction
-Homeostasis
-Energy levels

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13
Q

Respiratory system functions

A

-Allows vocalization
-Regulates the exchange of oxygen & carbon dioxide

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14
Q

Digestive system functions

A

-Eliminates solid wastes
-Breaks down food into nutrients

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15
Q

Urinary system functions

A

-Produces, stores, eliminates urine
-Help maintain fluid
-Filters the blood

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16
Q

Reproductive system functions

A

Regulates and controls reproductive processes

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17
Q

Common elements in the human body

A

-Primary
Hydrogen H, nitrogen N, oxygen O, carbon C
-Secondary
Phosphorus P
Sodium Na
Calcium Ça
Potassium K
Chlorine Cl
Magnesium Mg
Iron Fe
Sulfur S

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18
Q

These organic substances make up all cells and tissues in the body

A

Carbs-Type of sugar that gives energy
Lipids- Energy source or fat storage
Proteins- Building blocks for all cells and tissues
Nucleic acid- DNA & RNA

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19
Q

Types of tissue

A

Epithelial- Forms most glands, the digestive & respiratory tract, and the epidermis.
Muscle- Creates muscles
Nervous- Forms the brain, spinal cord, and nerves.
Connective

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20
Q

Contents of the upper right quadrant

A

Liver, gallbladder, pancreas, right kidney, small intestine, large intestine.

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21
Q

Contents of the upper left quadrant

A

Stomach, spleen, pancreas, left kidney, small intestine, large intestine

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22
Q

Contents of the lower right and lower left quadrants

A

Small intestine, large intestine, uterus, ovary, and urinary bladder.

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23
Q

Contents of the lower left quadrant

A

Small intestine, colon, left ovary

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24
Q

4 major body cavities

A

Dorsal cavity -
Cranial (brain)
Spinal (spinal cord)

Ventral cavity-
Thoracic (lungs and heart)
Abdominopelvic (Divided into quadrants)

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25
Q

What are cells responsible for?

A

Performing all essential life functions from synthesizing nutrients to destroying pathogens and debris.

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26
Q

Mitosis

A

Cell division

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27
Q

Organelle

A

Specialized structures inside cells that perform different functions for a cell. “Little organs”

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28
Q

Nucleus

A

Controls all cellular activity and contains the cell’s genetic information.

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29
Q

Mitochondria

A

Responsible for producing ATP (Provides energy to the body.)

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30
Q

Any living thing that functions as a whole.

A

Organism

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31
Q

This level of organization includes atoms and molecules, the microscopic particles that are the building blocks of all living matter.

A

Chemical

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32
Q

Level of organization- The smallest unit of life capable of existing on its own is the

A

Cellular

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33
Q

Level of organization- A group of similar cells that work together to carry out one or more specific functions.

A

Tissue

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34
Q

Level of organization- A well-defined and organized group of tissues working together

A

Organ

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35
Q

Level of organization- A group of interrelated and interdependent organs that work together to accomplish a specific function or set of functions.

A

System

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36
Q

Homeostasis process

A

Stimulus- Change in environment disrupts homeostasis

Receptor- Senses stimuli

Integration center- Nervous system or endocrine gland receives input from receptor

Effector- Responds

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37
Q

A vertical plane that divides the body or a body part into right and left

A

Sagittal

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38
Q

A vertical plane that divides the body or a body part into front and back

A

Frontal (coronal)

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39
Q

A horizontal plane that divides the body or a body part into top and bottom

A

Transverse (horizontal)

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40
Q

Body regions (anterior)

A

Frontal
Orbital
Brachial
Antecubital
Carpal
Inguinal
Crural
Tarsal
Sternal
Antebrachial
Femoral
Pedal

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41
Q

Body regions (lateral)

A

Otic
Acromial
Carpal
Cubital
Coxal
Manual
Fibular
Tarsal
Pedal

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42
Q

Body regions (posterior)

A

Occipital
Cervical
Olecranal
Lumbar
Sacral
Volar
Femoral
Popliteal
Sural

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43
Q

What are inorganic compounds and what are the body’s most common and important within the body’s cells and tissues?

A

Do not primarily contain carbon-hydrogen bonds.

Water, salts, acids, and bases

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44
Q

Describe water

A

H20

represents about 60% of overall body weight and is vital to all physiologic processes. essential compound for the transportation of nutrients, wastes, and other byproducts formed during the millions of chemical reactions that take place throughout the body. key byproducts transported by water is heat generated through muscle contraction and other cellular activities.

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45
Q

Inorganic salts

A

Compounds that break apart in water to release either positively or negatively charged atoms or molecules called ions.

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46
Q

Electrolyte description

A

Ions in water, conducting an electrical current.

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47
Q

Acid and base description

A

Acid- compounds that release hydrogen ions (H*) when dissolved in water
Base- Compounds that release the hydroxide ion (OH-) in water

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48
Q

Organic compound description

A

Those that always contain carbon molecules. Structural building blocks of our cells.
Carbs, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acid

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49
Q

Carbohydrate description

A

Includes starches and complex sugars that break down into glucose, which is used by the body to produce energy

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50
Q

Lipid description

A

Lipids may be stored as fat to insulate and protect the body or to serve as a future energy source.

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51
Q

Protein description

A

Structural building blocks for all cells and tissues.

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52
Q

Nucleic acid description

A

Deoxyribonucleic acid- DNA
Blueprint- Tells your body how to grow, repair itself, and function.

Ribonucleic acid- RNA
Reads the instructions in DNA and helps make proteins

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53
Q

Three primary structural features

A

Plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and nucleus.

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54
Q

Plasma membrane

A

Defines and encloses each cell

Regulates substances entering and leaving the cell. Primarily made up of lipids, including cholesterol, glycolipids, and phospholipids.

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55
Q

Microvilli & cilia

A

Microvilli- hair-like projections that increase the surface area of the membrane in order to increase the cell’s absorptive ability.

Cilia- the other type of plasma membrane extension. They wave in a coordinated fashion to move or brush substances from one area to another

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56
Q

integral membrane proteins (IMPs)

A

Allow the cell to read and respond to its environment.

•Receptor proteins
Monitor the internal and external environments of the cell to keep it informed about what is happening in and around it.

•Effector proteins
Direct the responses of the cell using information provided by the receptor proteins.

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57
Q

Cytoplasm

A

Everything inside the cell membrane except the nucleus.

Cytosol: The liquid portion, which is mostly water with dissolved nutrients, ions, and proteins.

Organelles and other structures: These include things like mitochondria, ribosomes, and the cytoskeleton, which are suspended in the cytosol.

Think of it like this: if the cytoplasm is a soup, the cytosol is the broth, and the organelles and structures are the solid ingredients. Together, they make up the cytoplasm!

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58
Q

Name the organelles

A

•Mitochondria- cell powerhouse, produces ATP

•Endoplasmic reticulum- Pathway for substances to move throughout cell

•Golgi apparatus- Modify and package proteins & lipids for export from cell

•Lysosomes- Destroy/ break down molecules in the body

•Centrosome- Cell division and producing/ organizing the cytoskeleton

•Cytoskeleton- provides shape, strength, and mobility to cells

•Ribosome- Like tiny factories in your cells that read genetic instructions (RNA) and assemble proteins, which are crucial for your body’s growth, repair, and function.

59
Q

Two mechanisms for moving substances in and out of the cells and tissues

A

Passive transport, no energy is expended, and substances move according to a concentration or pressure gradient. (diffusion, filtration, and facilitated diffusion)

Active transport- require energy (breaking down ATP) must be used when molecules need to be moved against the concentration or pressure gradient (Phagocytosis, ion pumps, and exocytosis)

60
Q

Metabolism
Anabolism
Catabolism

A

Metabolism- all chemical processes that happen in the cells to sustain life.

Anabolism- when the body uses molecules as building blocks to repair and build new tissue, or to store nutrients for use at a later time.

Catabolism- any chemical process the body uses to break down nutrients or molecules.

61
Q

Tissue types (4)

A

Epithelial- Internal lining and external covering of the body.

Muscle- contract or shorten to generate force for movement of body parts, fluids, and other substances. (skeletal, cardiac, and visceral)

Nervous- Found in brain, spinal cord, or nerves. Conductile (neurons- impulses) or nonconductile (neuroglia-support/protect neurons)

Connective- Most abundant. Connects, binds, supports, and protects the structures of the body. 5 basic types: liquid, loose, fibrous, cartilage, and bone

62
Q

Body membranes (4)

A

Mucous- Epithelial/ line cavities open to the external environment/ mucus

Serous- Epithelial/ form the parietal layer (lines the cavity) and the visceral layer (covers the organs)/ serous fluid reduces friction b/n layers allowing smooth expansion, contraction, and movement of organs within the cavity.

Synovial- Connective/ Lining of joints/ synovial fluid (reduces friction and wear to the bone ends during joint movement.)

Cutaneous- the body’s outer covering and the primary organ of the integumentary system.

63
Q

Layers of skin

A

Epidermis- most superficial layer/ continually renews and replaces itself (keratinocytes, melanocytes)

Dermis- middle/thickest layer (blood and lymph vessels, nerves, and
accessory organs)

Hypodermis- deepest layer

64
Q

What consists of the appendicular skeleton?

A

Arms
Legs
Scapula
Clavicle
Pelvic bones

65
Q

What consists of the axial skeleton?

A

Skull
Spine
Rib cage

66
Q

Four types of bone cells

A

osteoblasts- build up bone

osteoclasts- break down bone

osteocytes- carry out the nutrient-waste exchange to keep bones alive

osteogenic cells- only bone cells capable of mitosis (developing into osteoblasts)

67
Q

Types of bone tissue

A

Compact (dense or cortical)
Spongy (cancellous)

68
Q

Classifications of bones

A

Flat- sternum, scapula, and bones in the skull and pelvic girdle

Long- The majority of appendicular bones are long bones.

Short- Carpals and tarsals are short or cuboid.

Irregular- vertebrae, some facial bones, and the sesamoid bones, such as the patella.

69
Q

Pectoral girdle

A

Clavicle, sternum

70
Q

Cervical and lumbar regions of the spine have a concave appearance or anterior curve called

A

Lordotic curve

71
Q

The thoracic and sacral regions curve posteriorly to give them a convex appearance called

A

Kyphotic curve

72
Q

Joint classifications

A

Fibrous- synarthrotic (immovable)

Cartilaginous- amphiarthrotic (slightly movable)

Synovial- diarthrotic ( freely movable)

73
Q

Types of synovial joints

A

Hinge
Condyloid
Pivot
Saddle
Ball-and-socket
Gliding

74
Q

Skeletal muscles are characterized as being…

A

Excitable
Extensible
Elastic
Contractile

75
Q

Fascial layers of muscles and their function

A

Epimysium- surrounds the muscle as a whole

Perimysium- wraps several muscle fibers together into individual fascicles

Endomysium- envelops each individual muscle cell.

76
Q

Where does muscle contraction occur?

A

Within the sarcomeres of a myofibril

77
Q

Describe tonic muscle contraction

A

Tonic- create a constant low-grade tension and firmness in the muscles but do not create movement.
(Postural muscles)

78
Q

Describe isometric muscle contraction

A

Do not produce movement, but the tension generated by isometric contractions is much higher than that generated by tonic contractions.
(Bodybuilders use isometric contractions when they pose, contracting not for movement but to make the muscle bulge.)

79
Q

Describe isotonic muscle contraction

A

Those that create movement:

Concentric- The muscle as a whole shortens as the attachment points move closer together

Eccentric- The muscle lengthens as the attachments move farther away from each other

80
Q

Parallel muscles

A

Fibers are all the same length and in parallel arrangement, allowing them to shorten equally and pull in the same direction. Tend to produce movement over a wide range of motion.

Fusiform- Gastrocnemius
Circular- Orbicularis oris
Triangular- Pec Major

81
Q

Pennate muscles

A

Have shorter fibers within each fascicle that run in an oblique line to attach to a central tendon.
Can produce a powerful contraction but only over a small range of motion.

Unipennate- extensor digitorum longus
Bipennate- rectus femoris
Multipennate- deltoid

82
Q

Two major divisions of the nervous system and major components

A

Central- Brain and spinal cord

Peripheral- Sensory receptors and nerves

83
Q

Neuron description

A

Cells that conduct electrical impulses and are supported, insulated, and protected by neuroglia

3 structural elements:
Dendrites- Receive stimulus
Cell body- Houses the nucleus and organelles
Axon- Carries nerve impulses away from the cell body.

84
Q

Nerve description

A

Bundle of neurons and their blood supply.
Nerves in the PNS:
-Cranial (13 pairs of nerves emanating from the brain stem)
-Spinal (31 pairs of nerves emanating from the spinal cord).

85
Q

Cranial nerves of primary interest to manual therapists

A

•Trigeminal (V)
•Facial (VII)
~In and around TMJ, can be irritated with TMJ disfunctions~
•Vagus (X)
•Spinal accessory (XI)
~Lie deep to cervical muscles, vulnerable to compression or irritation from trigger points, muscle spasms, or subluxations in cervical vertebrae

86
Q

four major plexuses of the body

A

•C1-C5- Cervical plexus- innervates the neck, head, face, and upper shoulder

•Brachial- innervates pectoral girdle & the upper extremities C5-C8, T1 SN

•Lumbar- innervates the lumbar region of the back and gluteal region, abdominal, and thigh regions L1-L4 SN

•Sacral- innervates the hips (pelvic region) and lower extremities L4-S4 SN

87
Q

four regions of the brain and their primary functions-

A

Brain stem- Relays information between different regions of the brain and between the spinal cord and brain;

Diencephalon- Contains the thalamus (the sensory clearinghouse), the hypothalamus (the control center for autonomic functions), and the
pineal gland

Cerebrum- Serves as the center for cognition, consciousness, and motor activity

Cerebellum- Coordinates voluntary muscle activity and maintains muscle tone, posture, and equilibrium

88
Q

Sensory receptors

A

Special senses:
*Photoreceptors- Light
*Mechanoreceptors- Pressure/movement
*Chemoreceptors- Smell, taste

General sense: touch, temp, pressure, pain
*Proprioceptors-Specialized mechanic receptors
*Nociceptors- Pain
Baroceptors- Pressure
Tactile receptors
*Thermoreceptors- Temp
*Chemoreceptors- Chemical concentrations

89
Q

Lymbic system

A

Called the “emotional brain” because it is responsible for processing memories and emotions and controlling the unconscious responses related to survival.

90
Q

Divisions of Peripheral nervous system.

A

Somatic- Skeletal muscle

Autonomic- glands, organs, and smooth muscles in the body are all autonomic effectors.
•Sympathetic- fight-or-flight branch used to meet the demands of stress.
•Parasympathetic- In charge of maintaining and returning the body to homeostasis after stress.

91
Q

4 steps of the translation of a stimulus into the perception of pain

A

transduction, transmission, perception, and modulation.

92
Q

Two major types of pain

A

-Somatogenic pain (arising from the body)
• Includes superficial, deep somatic, and visceral pain (referred pain is visceral)
-Psychogenic pain (arising solely from the mind).
• Warnings of mental/emotional trauma- Heartache, stomach ache

93
Q

Gamma gain

A

The way muscle tension is controlled. When the body needs to stay steady or respond quickly, the brain can “turn up” the gamma gain. This increases muscle sensitivity making muscles more ready to tighten or adjust.
If a muscle is overly tight or sensitive, it might mean the gamma gain is too high.

94
Q

Fascial planes

A

Horizontal structural components, thick sheets of fascia inside body cavities that appear to provide structural strength to the torso and support the major blood vessels, nerves, and organs within.

Cranial base
Thoracic inlet
Diaphragm
Pelvic diaphragm

95
Q

Three ways endocrine glands may be stimulated to release hormones

A

Hormonal stimulus
Changes in blood concentrations
Neurological stimulus

96
Q

Hormones secreted by anterior pituitary

A

Prolactin
Thyroid stimulating hormone- TSH
Adrenocorticotropic hormone- ACTH
Luteinizing hormone LH
Follicle stimulating hormone FSH
Growth hormone GH

97
Q

Hormones secreted by posterior pituitary

A

Antidiuretic hormone
Oxytocin

98
Q

Hormones secreted by the pineal

A

Melatonin

99
Q

Hormones secreted by the thyroid

A

Triiodothyronine (T3)
Thyroxine (T4)
Calcitonin

100
Q

Hormones secreted by the parathyroid

A

Parathyroid hormone

101
Q

Hormones secreted by the thymus

A

Thymosin

102
Q

Hormones secreted by the pancreas

A

Insulin
Glucagon

103
Q

Hormones secreted by the adrenal cortex

A

Aldosterone
Cortisol

104
Q

Hormones secreted by the adrenal medulla

A

Adrenaline
Noradrenaline

105
Q

Hormones secreted by the ovaries

A

Estrogen
Progesterone

106
Q

Golgi tendon organ (GTO)

A

Proprioceptors sensitive to tension in the muscle and respond to increased tension by inhibiting contraction. They protect muscles and their tendons from tearing due to excessive tension.

107
Q

Highest concentration of GTO

A

A few GTOs are scattered throughout the muscle, the highest concentration is in tendons and musculotendinous junctions.

108
Q

GTO- Active release

A

The therapist applies manual stretch to the muscles and fascia as the client goes through an active ROM.

109
Q

GTO- facilitated stretching techniques

A

Contract relax

Contract-relax-antagonist-contract

110
Q

Fascial layers

A

Pannicular
Axial
Meningeal
Visceral

111
Q

Plasma proteins

A

Helps blood to hold water and remain fluid. Play an essential role in blood clotting and immune responses.

Albumin
Globulins
Fibrinogen

112
Q

Leukocytes

A

Granular- inflammation/tissue healing
Neutrophils, basophils, eosinophil

Agranular-
Lymphocytes, monocytes

113
Q

3 Steps of hemostasis

A

Vascular spasm
Platelet plug
Clot formation

114
Q

Areteriole

A

Controls distribution of blood to the capillary bed

115
Q

Capillary

A

Site of nutrient and waste exchange

116
Q

Venule

A

Collects blood from capillary bed

117
Q

Where is the heart located

A

In the mediastinum and surrounded by the pericardium.

118
Q

Heart division

A

Divided into right and left sides by the septum. Each side has an atrium and a ventricle. There are two AV valves between these chambers. The right AV valve is the tricuspid, and the left side is the bicuspid or mitral valve.

119
Q

Major arteries that carry blood from the heart

A

-Pulmonary artery, which exits from the right ventricle (pulmonary valve between the chamber and artery),

-Aorta, which exits the left ventricle (aortic valve between the chamber and artery).

120
Q

Major veins that return blood to the heart

A

-Pulmonary veins from the right and left lungs, which both enter the left atrium

-Inferior vena cava and superior vena cava, which both enter the right atrium.

121
Q

Blood flow through the heart

A

(Beginning on the right side of the heart)
1. Blood returning to the heart via the venae cavae
2. Right atrium
3. Tricuspid valve (Right AV valve)
4. Right ventricle
5. Pulmonary valve
6. Pulmonary trunk
7. Pulmonary artery to the lungs
8. Blood returns to the heart through the pulmonary veins
9. Left atrium
10. Bicuspid (mitral) valve (Left AV)
11. Left ventricle
12. Aortic valve
13. Aorta
14. Rest of the body
Repeat

122
Q

Cardiac conduction system

A

Responsible for setting the pace and coordinating contractions of the heart.

123
Q

Cardiac conduction system-
Primary components

A

SA node (pacemaker)
AV node (area of delay)
AV bundle (bundle of His)
right and left branch bundles
Purkinje fibers

124
Q

Normal resting heart rate

A

72-84 beats per minute

125
Q

Pulmonary & systemic circuit

A

The pulmonary circuit carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs via the pulmonary artery and returns freshly oxygenated blood to the left atrium via the pulmonary veins.

The systemic circuit carries freshly oxygenated blood out of the left ventricle to the rest of the body via the aorta and returns deoxygenated blood to the right atrium via the superior and inferior venae cavae.

126
Q

Process of tissue repair and healing

A
  1. Acute (inflammatory) stage
  2. Subacute (proliferative) stage
  3. Maturation (remodeling) stage
127
Q

What is the lymphatic system responsible for?

A

Fluid return system, picking up interstitial fluid, large protein molecules, and cellular debris- returning them to cardiovascular circulation.

Fully responsible for returning all capillary filtrate to circulation.

128
Q

Primary components of lymph

A

Proteins
Cells
Foreign substances
Long-chain fatty acids

129
Q

The smallest and first vessels in the lymphatic network.

A

Lymph capillaries

130
Q

The vascular network of the lymphatic system begins:

A

With capillaries and progresses to the larger vessels of the network

131
Q

How is lymph flow driven?

A

By respiratory and skeletal muscle pumps

132
Q

Lymphatics ultimately deliver lymph into 2 main channels

A

-Right lymphatic duct
Drains right side of head/neck, right arm, right thorax ii. Empties into the right subclavian vein

-Thoracic duct
Drains the rest of the body
Empties into the left subclavian vein

133
Q

Primary vessels for lymph transportation

A

Collectors- Pre-collectors (absorb interstitial fluid) converged into larger lymphatic vessels

134
Q

Lymph node beds (catchments)

A

-Located at hinge areas
- slows rates of flow helping nodes carry out filtering and immune system processes.

135
Q

Primary catchment sites

A

Axillary nodes
Cervical lymph nodes
Inguinal catchment
Popliteal catchment

136
Q

The movement of interstitial fluid into the lymphatic capillaries is based on two factors:

A

The fluid pressure differentials between the interstitium and the lymph vessel network

The opening and closing of the epithelial flaps by the anchor filaments that project into the interstitium

137
Q

Primary lymphedema

A

Congenital or genetic defect in lymphatic development resulting in an insuffcient fluid return function.

138
Q

Secondary lymphedema

A

Develops when the nodes or vessels of the lymphatic system are damaged or destroyed so that edema uptake and lymph flow are significantly compromised.

139
Q

Primary influences on fluid uptake

A

The siphon principle, which maintains negative pressure within the lymphatic system, and interstitial fluid pressure

140
Q

Primary internal influences on lymph flow

A

The siphon effect
Autonomic contractile rate of collectors.

141
Q

External factors affecting lymph flow

A

-Pulse rate
-Respiratory and skeletal muscle pumps
-Manual lymphatic techniques

142
Q

Visceral pain

A

Pain in a body area distant from the affected organ

143
Q

During the contraction of a skeletal muscle, what occurs immediately after the brain receives impulses?

A

When the brain receives an impulse, it sends a message to the neuron, which in turn stimulates the motor unit. Then the motor unit is stimulated, and it releases acetylcholine. After the acetylcholine is released, the muscle fiber is stimulated to release calcium. The actual muscle contraction occurs after the release of calcium.

*MBLEX* (5 decks)

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