A&P Flashcards
Levels of organization
Chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, system, organism.
Internal stability or balance
Homeostasis
Physiologic effect
Changes to tissues, organs, or systems
Structural effects (mechanical effects)
Physical changes that occur in the muscle and connective tissues of the body, such as stretching, loosening, or broadening.
Systemic effects (reflexive effects)
Regional or body-wide responses mediated by cellular, circulatory, endocrine, and/or nervous system processes.
-decreased pain
-edema reduction (swelling)
-improved local fluid movement
Integumentary system functions (5)
•Regulates body temp
•Protects from infections and harmful substances
•Waste excretion
•Vitamin D production
•Sensation
Skeletal system functions
-Blood cell production
-Allows movement
-Provides structure
-Stores minerals
-Protects organs
Muscular system functions
-Contraction
-Maintains posture
-Creates movement
-Generates heat
Cardiovascular system functions
-Carries oxygen and nutrients
-Transports wastes
-Promotes immune responses
-Pumps blood throughout the body
Lymphatic system functions
-Aids in healing and resisting disease
-Helps maintain fluid balance
Nervous system functions
-Bodys control center
-Communicates body system info
-Coordinates body responses
Endocrine system functions
-Glands and hormones
-Growth and development
-Reproduction
-Homeostasis
-Energy levels
Respiratory system functions
-Allows vocalization
-Regulates the exchange of oxygen & carbon dioxide
Digestive system functions
-Eliminates solid wastes
-Breaks down food into nutrients
Urinary system functions
-Produces, stores, eliminates urine
-Help maintain fluid
-Filters the blood
Reproductive system functions
Regulates and controls reproductive processes
Common elements in the human body
-Primary
Hydrogen H, nitrogen N, oxygen O, carbon C
-Secondary
Phosphorus P
Sodium Na
Calcium Ça
Potassium K
Chlorine Cl
Magnesium Mg
Iron Fe
Sulfur S
These organic substances make up all cells and tissues in the body
Carbs-Type of sugar that gives energy
Lipids- Energy source or fat storage
Proteins- Building blocks for all cells and tissues
Nucleic acid- DNA & RNA
Types of tissue
Epithelial- Forms most glands, the digestive & respiratory tract, and the epidermis.
Muscle- Creates muscles
Nervous- Forms the brain, spinal cord, and nerves.
Connective
Contents of the upper right quadrant
Liver, gallbladder, pancreas, right kidney, small intestine, large intestine.
Contents of the upper left quadrant
Stomach, spleen, pancreas, left kidney, small intestine, large intestine
Contents of the lower right and lower left quadrants
Small intestine, large intestine, uterus, ovary, and urinary bladder.
Contents of the lower left quadrant
Small intestine, colon, left ovary
4 major body cavities
Dorsal cavity -
Cranial (brain)
Spinal (spinal cord)
Ventral cavity-
Thoracic (lungs and heart)
Abdominopelvic (Divided into quadrants)
What are cells responsible for?
Performing all essential life functions from synthesizing nutrients to destroying pathogens and debris.
Mitosis
Cell division
Organelle
Specialized structures inside cells that perform different functions for a cell. “Little organs”
Nucleus
Controls all cellular activity and contains the cell’s genetic information.
Mitochondria
Responsible for producing ATP (Provides energy to the body.)
Any living thing that functions as a whole.
Organism
This level of organization includes atoms and molecules, the microscopic particles that are the building blocks of all living matter.
Chemical
Level of organization- The smallest unit of life capable of existing on its own is the
Cellular
Level of organization- A group of similar cells that work together to carry out one or more specific functions.
Tissue
Level of organization- A well-defined and organized group of tissues working together
Organ
Level of organization- A group of interrelated and interdependent organs that work together to accomplish a specific function or set of functions.
System
Homeostasis process
Stimulus- Change in environment disrupts homeostasis
Receptor- Senses stimuli
Integration center- Nervous system or endocrine gland receives input from receptor
Effector- Responds
A vertical plane that divides the body or a body part into right and left
Sagittal
A vertical plane that divides the body or a body part into front and back
Frontal (coronal)
A horizontal plane that divides the body or a body part into top and bottom
Transverse (horizontal)
Body regions (anterior)
Frontal
Orbital
Brachial
Antecubital
Carpal
Inguinal
Crural
Tarsal
Sternal
Antebrachial
Femoral
Pedal
Body regions (lateral)
Otic
Acromial
Carpal
Cubital
Coxal
Manual
Fibular
Tarsal
Pedal
Body regions (posterior)
Occipital
Cervical
Olecranal
Lumbar
Sacral
Volar
Femoral
Popliteal
Sural
What are inorganic compounds and what are the body’s most common and important within the body’s cells and tissues?
Do not primarily contain carbon-hydrogen bonds.
Water, salts, acids, and bases
Describe water
H20
represents about 60% of overall body weight and is vital to all physiologic processes. essential compound for the transportation of nutrients, wastes, and other byproducts formed during the millions of chemical reactions that take place throughout the body. key byproducts transported by water is heat generated through muscle contraction and other cellular activities.
Inorganic salts
Compounds that break apart in water to release either positively or negatively charged atoms or molecules called ions.
Electrolyte description
Ions in water, conducting an electrical current.
Acid and base description
Acid- compounds that release hydrogen ions (H*) when dissolved in water
Base- Compounds that release the hydroxide ion (OH-) in water
Organic compound description
Those that always contain carbon molecules. Structural building blocks of our cells.
Carbs, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acid
Carbohydrate description
Includes starches and complex sugars that break down into glucose, which is used by the body to produce energy
Lipid description
Lipids may be stored as fat to insulate and protect the body or to serve as a future energy source.
Protein description
Structural building blocks for all cells and tissues.
Nucleic acid description
Deoxyribonucleic acid- DNA
Blueprint- Tells your body how to grow, repair itself, and function.
Ribonucleic acid- RNA
Reads the instructions in DNA and helps make proteins
Three primary structural features of cells.
Plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and nucleus.
Plasma membrane
Defines and encloses each cell
Regulates substances entering and leaving the cell. Primarily made up of lipids, including cholesterol, glycolipids, and phospholipids.
Microvilli & cilia
Microvilli- hair-like projections that increase the surface area of the membrane in order to increase the cell’s absorptive ability.
Cilia- the other type of plasma membrane extension. They wave in a coordinated fashion to move or brush substances from one area to another
integral membrane proteins (IMPs)
Allow the cell to read and respond to its environment.
•Receptor proteins
Monitor the internal and external environments of the cell to keep it informed about what is happening in and around it.
•Effector proteins
Direct the responses of the cell using information provided by the receptor proteins.
Cytoplasm
Everything inside the cell membrane except the nucleus.
Cytosol: The liquid portion, which is mostly water with dissolved nutrients, ions, and proteins.
Organelles and other structures: These include things like mitochondria, ribosomes, and the cytoskeleton, which are suspended in the cytosol.
Think of it like this: if the cytoplasm is a soup, the cytosol is the broth, and the organelles and structures are the solid ingredients. Together, they make up the cytoplasm!
Name the organelles
•Mitochondria- cell powerhouse, produces ATP
•Endoplasmic reticulum- Pathway for substances to move throughout cell
•Golgi apparatus- Modify and package proteins & lipids for export from cell
•Lysosomes- Destroy/ break down molecules in the body
•Centrosome- Cell division and producing/ organizing the cytoskeleton
•Cytoskeleton- provides shape, strength, and mobility to cells
•Ribosome- Like tiny factories in your cells that read genetic instructions (RNA) and assemble proteins, which are crucial for your body’s growth, repair, and function.
Two mechanisms for moving substances in and out of the cells and tissues
Passive transport, no energy is expended, and substances move according to a concentration or pressure gradient. (diffusion, filtration, and facilitated diffusion)
Active transport- require energy (breaking down ATP) must be used when molecules need to be moved against the concentration or pressure gradient (Phagocytosis, ion pumps, and exocytosis)
Metabolism
Anabolism
Catabolism
Metabolism- all chemical processes that happen in the cells to sustain life.
Anabolism- when the body uses molecules as building blocks to repair and build new tissue, or to store nutrients for use at a later time.
Catabolism- any chemical process the body uses to break down nutrients or molecules.
Tissue types (4)
Epithelial- Internal lining and external covering of the body.
Muscle- contract or shorten to generate force for movement of body parts, fluids, and other substances. (skeletal, cardiac, and visceral)
Nervous- Found in brain, spinal cord, or nerves. Conductile (neurons- impulses) or nonconductile (neuroglia-support/protect neurons)
Connective- Most abundant. Connects, binds, supports, and protects the structures of the body. 5 basic types: liquid, loose, fibrous, cartilage, and bone
Body membranes (4)
Mucous- Epithelial/ line cavities open to the external environment/ mucus
Serous- Epithelial/ form the parietal layer (lines the cavity) and the visceral layer (covers the organs)/ serous fluid reduces friction b/n layers allowing smooth expansion, contraction, and movement of organs within the cavity.
Synovial- Connective/ Lining of joints/ synovial fluid (reduces friction and wear to the bone ends during joint movement.)
Cutaneous- the body’s outer covering and the primary organ of the integumentary system.
Layers of skin
Epidermis- most superficial layer/ continually renews and replaces itself (keratinocytes, melanocytes)
Dermis- middle/thickest layer (blood and lymph vessels, nerves, and
accessory organs)
Hypodermis- deepest layer
What consists of the appendicular skeleton?
Arms
Legs
Scapula
Clavicle
Pelvic bones
What consists of the axial skeleton?
Skull
Spine
Rib cage
Four types of bone cells
osteoblasts- build up bone
osteoclasts- break down bone
osteocytes- carry out the nutrient-waste exchange to keep bones alive
osteogenic cells- only bone cells capable of mitosis (developing into osteoblasts)
Types of bone tissue
Compact (dense or cortical)
Spongy (cancellous)
Classifications of bones
Flat- sternum, scapula, and bones in the skull and pelvic girdle
Long- The majority of appendicular bones are long bones.
Short- Carpals and tarsals are short or cuboid.
Irregular- vertebrae, some facial bones, and the sesamoid bones, such as the patella.
Pectoral girdle
Clavicle, sternum
Cervical and lumbar regions of the spine have a concave appearance or anterior curve called
Lordotic curve
The thoracic and sacral regions curve posteriorly to give them a convex appearance called
Kyphotic curve
Joint classifications
Fibrous- synarthrotic (immovable)
Cartilaginous- amphiarthrotic (slightly movable)
Synovial- diarthrotic ( freely movable)
Types of synovial joints
Hinge
Condyloid
Pivot
Saddle
Ball-and-socket
Gliding
Skeletal muscles are characterized as being…
Excitable
Extensible
Elastic
Contractile
Fascial layers of muscles and their function
Epimysium- surrounds the muscle as a whole
Perimysium- wraps several muscle fibers together into individual fascicles
Endomysium- envelops each individual muscle cell.
Where does muscle contraction occur?
Within the sarcomeres of a myofibril
Describe tonic muscle contraction
Tonic- create a constant low-grade tension and firmness in the muscles but do not create movement.
(Postural muscles)
Describe isometric muscle contraction
Do not produce movement, but the tension generated by isometric contractions is much higher than that generated by tonic contractions.
(Bodybuilders use isometric contractions when they pose, contracting not for movement but to make the muscle bulge.)
Describe isotonic muscle contraction
Those that create movement:
Concentric- The muscle as a whole shortens as the attachment points move closer together
Eccentric- The muscle lengthens as the attachments move farther away from each other
Parallel muscles
Fibers are all the same length and in parallel arrangement, allowing them to shorten equally and pull in the same direction. Tend to produce movement over a wide range of motion.
Fusiform- Gastrocnemius
Circular- Orbicularis oris
Triangular- Pec Major
Pennate muscles
Have shorter fibers within each fascicle that run in an oblique line to attach to a central tendon.
Can produce a powerful contraction but only over a small range of motion.
Unipennate- extensor digitorum longus
Bipennate- rectus femoris
Multipennate- deltoid
Two major divisions of the nervous system and major components
Central- Brain and spinal cord
Peripheral- Sensory receptors and nerves
Neuron description
Cells that conduct electrical impulses and are supported, insulated, and protected by neuroglia
3 structural elements:
Dendrites- Receive stimulus
Cell body- Houses the nucleus and organelles
Axon- Carries nerve impulses away from the cell body.
Nerve description
Bundle of neurons and their blood supply.
Nerves in the PNS:
-Cranial (13 pairs of nerves emanating from the brain stem)
-Spinal (31 pairs of nerves emanating from the spinal cord).
Cranial nerves of primary interest to manual therapists
•Trigeminal (V)
•Facial (VII)
~In and around TMJ, can be irritated with TMJ disfunctions~
•Vagus (X)
•Spinal accessory (XI)
~Lie deep to cervical muscles, vulnerable to compression or irritation from trigger points, muscle spasms, or subluxations in cervical vertebrae
four major plexuses of the body
Cervical plexus- C1-C5 innervates the neck, head, face, and upper shoulder
•Brachial- innervates pectoral girdle & the upper extremities C5-C8, T1 SN
•Lumbar- innervates the lumbar region of the back and gluteal region, abdominal, and thigh regions L1-L4 SN
•Sacral- innervates the hips (pelvic region) and lower extremities L4-S4 SN
four regions of the brain and their primary functions-
Brain stem- Relays information between different regions of the brain and between the spinal cord and brain;
Diencephalon- Contains the thalamus (the sensory clearinghouse), the hypothalamus (the control center for autonomic functions), and the
pineal gland
Cerebrum- Serves as the center for cognition, consciousness, and motor activity
Cerebellum- Coordinates voluntary muscle activity and maintains muscle tone, posture, and equilibrium
Sensory receptors
Special senses:
*Photoreceptors- Light
*Mechanoreceptors- Pressure/movement
*Chemoreceptors- Smell, taste
General sense: touch, temp, pressure, pain
*Proprioceptors-Specialized mechanic receptors for position, movement, and state of muscle tension.
*Nociceptors- Pain
Baroceptors- Pressure
Tactile receptors
*Thermoreceptors- Temp
*Chemoreceptors- Chemical concentrations
Lymbic system
Called the “emotional brain” because it is responsible for processing memories and emotions and controlling the unconscious responses related to survival.
Divisions of Peripheral nervous system.
Somatic- include sensory and motor pathways (Skeletal muscle)
Autonomic- glands, organs, and smooth muscles in the body are all autonomic effectors.
•Sympathetic- fight-or-flight branch used to meet the demands of stress.
•Parasympathetic- In charge of maintaining and returning the body to homeostasis after stress.
4 steps of the translation of a stimulus into the perception of pain
transduction, transmission, perception, and modulation.
Two major types of pain
-Somatogenic pain (arising from the body)
• Includes superficial, deep somatic, and visceral pain (referred pain is visceral)
-Psychogenic pain (arising solely from the mind).
• Warnings of mental/emotional trauma- Heartache, stomach ache
Gamma gain
The way muscle tension is controlled. When the body needs to stay steady or respond quickly, the brain can “turn up” the gamma gain. This increases muscle sensitivity making muscles more ready to tighten or adjust.
If a muscle is overly tight or sensitive, it might mean the gamma gain is too high.
Fascial planes
Horizontal structural components, thick sheets of fascia inside body cavities that appear to provide structural strength to the torso and support the major blood vessels, nerves, and organs within.
Cranial base
Thoracic inlet
Diaphragm
Pelvic diaphragm
Three ways endocrine glands may be stimulated to release hormones
Hormonal stimulus
Neurological stimulus
Changes in blood concentrations
Hormones secreted by anterior pituitary
Prolactin
Thyroid stimulating hormone- TSH
Adrenocorticotropic hormone- ACTH
Luteinizing hormone LH
Follicle stimulating hormone FSH
Growth hormone GH
Hormones secreted by posterior pituitary
Antidiuretic hormone
Oxytocin
Hormones secreted by the pineal
Melatonin
Hormones secreted by the thyroid
Triiodothyronine (T3)
Thyroxine (T4)
Calcitonin
Hormones secreted by the parathyroid
Parathyroid hormone
Hormones secreted by the thymus
Thymosin
Hormones secreted by the pancreas
Insulin
Glucagon
Hormones secreted by the adrenal cortex
Aldosterone
Cortisol
Hormones secreted by the adrenal medulla
Adrenaline
Noradrenaline
Hormones secreted by the ovaries
Estrogen
Progesterone
Golgi tendon organ (GTO)
Proprioceptors sensitive to tension in the muscle and respond to increased tension by inhibiting contraction. They protect muscles and their tendons from tearing due to excessive tension.
Highest concentration of GTO
A few GTOs are scattered throughout the muscle, the highest concentration is in tendons and musculotendinous junctions.
GTO- Active release
The therapist applies manual stretch to the muscles and fascia as the client goes through an active ROM.
Golgi Tendon Organ (GTO)- facilitated stretching techniques
Contract relax
Contract-relax-antagonist-contract
PIR
RI
Fascial layers
Pannicular
Axial
Meningeal
Visceral
Plasma proteins
Helps blood to hold water and remain fluid. Play an essential role in blood clotting and immune responses.
Albumin
Globulins
Fibrinogen
Leukocytes (white blood cells)
Granular- inflammation/tissue healing
Neutrophils, basophils, eosinophil
Agranular-
Lymphocytes, monocytes
3 Steps of hemostasis
Vascular spasm
Platelet plug
Clot formation
Areteriole
Controls distribution of blood to the capillary bed
Capillary
Site of nutrient and waste exchange
Venule
Collects blood from capillary bed
Where is the heart located
In the mediastinum and surrounded by the pericardium.
Heart division
Divided into right and left sides by the septum. Each side has an atrium and a ventricle. There are two AV valves between these chambers. The right AV valve is the tricuspid, and the left side is the bicuspid or mitral valve.
Major arteries that carry blood from the heart
-Pulmonary artery, which exits from the right ventricle (pulmonary valve between the chamber and artery),
-Aorta, which exits the left ventricle (aortic valve between the chamber and artery).
Major veins that return blood to the heart
-Pulmonary veins from the right and left lungs, which both enter the left atrium
-Inferior vena cava and superior vena cava, which both enter the right atrium.
Blood flow through the heart
(Beginning on the right side of the heart)
1. Blood returning to the heart via the venae cavae
2. Right atrium
3. Tricuspid valve (Right AV valve)
4. Right ventricle
5. Pulmonary valve
6. Pulmonary trunk
7. Pulmonary artery to the lungs
8. Blood returns to the heart through the pulmonary veins
9. Left atrium
10. Bicuspid (mitral) valve (Left AV)
11. Left ventricle
12. Aortic valve
13. Aorta
14. Rest of the body
Repeat
Cardiac conduction system- what is it?
Responsible for setting the pace and coordinating contractions of the heart.
Cardiac conduction system-
Primary components
SA node (pacemaker)
AV node (area of delay)
AV bundle (bundle of His)
right and left branch bundles
Purkinje fibers
Normal resting heart rate
72-84 beats per minute
Pulmonary & systemic circuit
The pulmonary circuit carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs via the pulmonary artery and returns freshly oxygenated blood to the left atrium via the pulmonary veins.
The systemic circuit carries freshly oxygenated blood out of the left ventricle to the rest of the body via the aorta and returns deoxygenated blood to the right atrium via the superior and inferior venae cavae.
Process of tissue repair and healing
- Acute (inflammatory) stage
- Subacute (proliferative) stage
- Maturation (remodeling) stage
What is the lymphatic system responsible for?
Fluid return system, picking up interstitial fluid, large protein molecules, and cellular debris- returning them to cardiovascular circulation.
Fully responsible for returning all capillary filtrate to circulation.
Primary components of lymph
Proteins
Cells
Foreign substances
Long-chain fatty acids
The smallest and first vessels in the lymphatic network.
Lymph capillaries
The vascular network of the lymphatic system begins:
With capillaries and progresses to the larger vessels of the network
How is lymph flow driven?
By respiratory and skeletal muscle pumps
Lymphatics ultimately deliver lymph into 2 main channels
-Right lymphatic duct
Drains right side of head/neck, right arm, right thorax ii. Empties into the right subclavian vein
-Thoracic duct
Drains the rest of the body
Empties into the left subclavian vein
Primary vessels for lymph transportation
Collectors- Pre-collectors (absorb interstitial fluid) converged into larger lymphatic vessels
Lymph node beds (catchments)
-Located at hinge areas
- slows rates of flow helping nodes carry out filtering and immune system processes.
Primary catchment sites
Axillary nodes
Cervical lymph nodes
Inguinal catchment
Popliteal catchment
The movement of interstitial fluid into the lymphatic capillaries is based on two factors:
The fluid pressure differentials between the interstitium and the lymph vessel network
The opening and closing of the epithelial flaps by the anchor filaments that project into the interstitium
Primary lymphedema
Congenital or genetic defect in lymphatic development resulting in an insuffcient fluid return function.
Secondary lymphedema
Develops when the nodes or vessels of the lymphatic system are damaged or destroyed so that edema uptake and lymph flow are significantly compromised.
Primary influences on fluid uptake
The siphon principle, which maintains negative pressure within the lymphatic system, and interstitial fluid pressure
Primary internal influences on lymph flow
The siphon effect
Autonomic contractile rate of collectors.
External factors affecting lymph flow
-Pulse rate
-Respiratory and skeletal muscle pumps
-Manual lymphatic techniques
Visceral pain
Pain in a body area distant from the affected organ
During the contraction of a skeletal muscle, what occurs immediately after the brain receives impulses?
When the brain receives an impulse, it sends a message to the neuron, which in turn stimulates the motor unit. Then the motor unit is stimulated, and it releases acetylcholine. After the acetylcholine is released, the muscle fiber is stimulated to release calcium. The actual muscle contraction occurs after the release of calcium.
This duct drains lymph from the greater portion of the body?
Thoracic
Describe emigration
Movement of neutrophils between endothelial cells in the wall of blood vessels
largest single mass of lymphoid tissue
Spleen
What are macrophages and which white blood cell develops into one?
A type of white blood cell that surrounds and kills microorganisms, removes dead cells, and stimulates the action of other immune system cells
*Monocyte
Functions of the complement system
-Activation of inflamination
-Promotion of phagocytosis
-Cytolysis (Rupturing) of microbes
-Opsonization (coating that promotes phagocytosis) of microbes
Where is lymph directly derived from and by which lymphatic vessels is it delivered to lymph nodes?
Directly derived from Interstitial fluid; Delivered to lymph nodes by afferent lymphatic vessels.
Chemotaxis
Chemical attraction and movement of phagocytes to the site of tissue damage
5 phases of chemocytosis
chemotaxis, adherence, ingestion, digestion, killing
Where do T lymphocytes mature?
Thymus
Activated B cells can divide and become B-memory cells or
Plasma cells
Lymph drains from the thoracic duct into
The left subclavian vein
What is phagocytosis? What are the five phases of phagocytosis in order?
-Macrophages removing cellular debris and microbes
chemotaxis, adherence, ingestion, digestion, killing
Activated B cells can divide and become B memory cells or?
Plasma cells
Lymph flow through a lymph node, in order
afferent vessel; subcapsular sinus, trabecular sinus; medullary sinus; efferent vessel.
Specific portion of an antigen that triggers an immune response
Epitope
Coating that promotes phagocytosis
Opsonization
Primary lymphoid organs & tissues
Those in which mature lymphocytes are produced
-Red bone marrow and thymus
Secondary lymphoid organs & tissues
The sites where most of the body’s immune responses occur
-lymph nodes, spleen, unencapsulated masses of lymphoid tissue.
Antibody-Mediated immunity vs. Cell-Mediated immunity
AM- When B cells recognize a specific antigen in the blood, lymph, or interstitial fluid
CM- When T cells recognize & respond to a specific antigen
How is the respiratory system divided?
Upper-
Nose, sinuses, pharynx, larynx
Lower-
Trachea, lungs, bronchial tree
How does air enter the respiratory system?
Through the nostrils (nares)
Respiratory mucosa
Warms and humidifies air before it enters the lungs and traps foreign particles.
What is the pharynx?
The throat
What is the larynx?
The voice box
Glottis & epiglottis
glottis- opening between the vocal cords
epiglottis- flap attached to the base of the tongue and hyoid bone. During swallowing, pulled over glottis to prevent food/fluids from entering the trachea.
The trachea splits into_______
The right and left primary bronchi, which carry air into the lungs. Each bronchus has multiple smaller branches and bronchioles that terminate in clusters of tiny air sacs called alveoli.
How are breathing rate and rhythm controlled and regulated?
Medulla oblongata centers- Responsible for setting the basic rhythm of breathing.
Pons- Assist with rhythm and set the rate.
