9.0 Quantitative - data collection and analysis Flashcards
Types of data collection in quantitative research
Physiological measurement
Observation
Interviews
Questionnaires
Records or other documents
Interview schedule (structured) and questionnaire differ only in that
the interview involves interviewer asking the questions, and with the questionnaire the respondent reads themselves.
Three ways to administer a questionnaire
Mail/Web
Collective/captive audience
In public place
Considerations in choosing between an interview or questionnaire
Topic (e.g. a sensitive issue)
Where the respondents live
Who the study population is
Advantages of using a questionnaire for data collection
Less expensive
Anonymity
Disadvantages of using a questionnaire for data collection
Application is limited
Literacy respondents
Low response rate
Self-selecting bias
Opportunity to clarify issues not there
Does not allow for spontaneous response
Response to a question may be influenced by other responses.
Opportunity to consult with others.
Cannot be supplemented with other information (i.e. + observation)
What is secondary data in research?
Existing data/Second hand information.
Examples:
Earlier research, census data, personal records, government publications
Government registries including cancer registries, hospital morbidity data, the mental health register etc.
Clinical records
Surveys and questionnaires - purpose:
A structured way to collect information.
Surveys are typically conducted through the mail (electronic or surface), phone, or internet.
Purpose:
To collect standardized information from large numbers of individuals.
When face to face meetings are inadvisable.
When privacy is important or independent opinions and responses are needed
What’s the difference between a survey and questionnaire?
Survey – method - “a descriptive research method where respondents are asked a series of questions in a standard manner so that responses can be easily quantified and analysed statistically.”
Questionnaire - tool - a specific type of written survey made up of a structured series of questions. Questionnaires usually have highly standardised response options so that data can be easily analysed and compared.”
Research design steps
Decide who should be involved in the process.
Define content.
Identify your respondents.
Decide on the survey method.
Develop the questionnaire.
Pilot test the questionnaire and other materials.
Think about analysis.
Communicate about your survey and its results.
Develop a budget, timeline, and management process
Representativeness
- refers to how well the sample drawn for the questionnaire research compares with (eg, is representative of) the population of interest.
Questionnaire structure
Title
Introductory paragraph (ethics, confidentiality)
Content questions:
Section
Filter questions (Go to question…)
Place easiest questions upfront
Avoid providing answers to later questions
Finish:
How to return questionnaire
Link to press
Acknowledgement
Response rate
The proportion of people who respond: divide the number of returned surveys by the total number of surveys distributed.
If 50 questionnaires are distributed and 25 questionnaires returned the response rate is 50%.
High response rate - promotes confidence in results
Lower response rate - increases the likelihood of biased results.
How to increase response rate
Generate positive publicity for your survey.
Over sample.
Ensure respondents see the value of participating.
Make (multiple) follow-up contacts.
Provide incentives.
Provide 1st class postage/return postage.
Set return deadlines.
Make the survey easy to complete.
Good questionnaires are NOT EASY
Developing a good questionnaire takes time, time and more time.
Multiple drafts may be involved before the questionnaire is ready.
It’s important to involve others in writing the questionnaire.
Questionnaire design − Considerations
Kind of information: What do you want to know?
Is the information already available?
Wording of questions and responses
Formatting the questionnaire
Pre-testing
Cover letters and introductions
When/where will the questionnaire be distributed? How will returns be managed? How will the data be analyzed?
Who is responsible for each task?
Steps to take if using questionnaires in research
Step 1: What information is needed?
Step 2: Sample
Step 3: Develop questionnaire
Step 4: Plan distribution, return, follow-up
Step 5: Pilot test
Step 6: Revise and revise
Open-ended questions
− allow respondents to provide their own answers
N
umeric open end (e.g. please state AUD$_______ )
Text open end (sometimes called “verbatims”). How could you increase the proportion of household income used on healthcare?
Closed-ended questions
− list answers and respondents select either one or multiple responses
Questions: How much do you spend on health care per year?
multiple choice (<100, <300, <500, <700,+1000)
Question design
Avoid vague questions and answers.
Avoid ambiguous words or phrases.
Avoid questions that may be too specific.
Avoid making assumptions.
Avoid leading questions.
Biased questions
- Influence people to respond in a certain way – “loaded questions”
- Make assumptions about the respondent – “leading questions”
- Use language that has strong positive or negative appeal
Write questions through your respondent’s eyes
Will the question be seen as reasonable?
Will it infringe on the respondent’s privacy?
Will the respondent be able and willing to answer the question?
Be selective and realistic when writing questions.
Order and wording of questions can affect responses and bias the results (Bowling, 2002).
Types of questions
Behaviour questions - ask about what people do – do you currently smoke cigarettes?
Belief questions – ask about whether people belief something to be true or false - Do you think peer pressure or parental example is more influential in determining smoking uptake among adolescents?
Attitude questions – seek to establish what respondents think is desirable- Do you agree with the statement ‘Airports should provide a smoking room for travellers.’
Knowledge questions - seek to determine what people know about particular topics. – what do you know about the effects of smoking on women?
Attribute questions –information about more objective characteristics of respondents - age, gender, place of residence etc.
Reliability is …
the extent to which a measurement instrument is dependable, stable, and consistent when repeated under identical conditions.
Validity is …
the extent to which the scale measures what it is supposed to measure (content and construct validity).
Likert scale
Commonly 5 or 7 point scales.
Most commonly used scaling method in health research.
Has typically high reliability.
