7.0 Qualitative - data collection

Question 1

Methods of collecting data in qualitative study

Answer 1

Observation (active observer or passive observer)
Interview
Focus group discussion
Open ended questionnaire
Journaling
Using available information

Question 2

Using available information and five major types

Answer 2

Usually there is a large amount of data that has already been collected by others, although it may not
necessarily have been analysed or published.

Locating these sources and retrieving the information is a good starting point in any data collection effort.

Five major types
1. Archival documents
2. Journals
3. Maps
4. Videotapes and audiotapes
5. Key informants
Key informants could be knowledgeable community leaders or health staff at various levels or informative members of the target group. They can be involved in various stages of the research, from the statement of the problem to analysis of the data and development of recommendations.

Question 3

What is observation?

Answer 3

Observation – ‘’the process of collecting data by looking rather than listening.”

“Observation of behaviours, actions, activities and interactions is a tool for understanding more than what people say about (complex) situations, and can help to understand these complex situations more fully.”

Question 4

Observation- Types

Answer 4

Nonparticipant observation – unobtrusive.
OR
Participative – researcher participates in the setting (can be acknowledged and overt; or concealed or covert)
OR
Structured (quantitative) – collecting of data according to a set of predefined rules and procedures (with a checklist, categories to check, rating scales) . [Looking for]
OR
Unstructured (qualitative)– general idea of what will be observed, but takes a holistic, unstructured and unfocused approach, recording events as they occur. [Looking at]

Note:
- These approaches often overlap (using structured coding forms for routine data alongside unstructured field notes and narratives).
- Observing what does not happen may be as important as observing what does happen.

Question 5

When is inter-observer reliability required?

Answer 5

Unstructured observation -
Interobserver reliability required where there are 2 or more researchers - need to ensure they are consistent.

Question 6

Steps in planning for observation

Answer 6

Observation must be conducted in a SYSTEMATIC manner.

Determine WHO/WHAT will be observed.
Determine ASPECTS that will be observed (characteristics, attributes, behaviors, etc.).
Determine WHERE and WHEN observations will be made.
DEVELOP the observation RECORD SHEET.
PILOT TEST the observation record sheet. Train the observers and have them practice. COLLECT the information.
ANALYSE and INTERPRET the collected information. Write up and use your findings.
Observations need to be RECORDED to be credible: Observation guide, Recording sheet, Checklist, Field note, Picture, Combination

Question 7

What are some of the limitations of observation?

Answer 7

• Only observing so miss the full picture
• Inconsistencies between researchers observing
• Bias in relation to the interpretation of observations

Question 8

What are the advantages (4) and disadvantages (6) of observation?

Answer 8

Advantages
-Most direct measure of behaviour
-Provides direct information
-Easy to complete, saves time
-Can be used in natural or experimental settings. Can see things in their natural context
- Unobtrusive, least intrusive
- Can see things that may escape conscious awareness, things that are not seen by others
- Can discover things no one else has ever really paid attention to, things that are taken for granted
- Can learn about things people may be unwilling to talk about Inconspicuous – least potential for generating observer effects
- Can be totally creative – has flexibility to yield insight into new realities or new ways of looking at old realities

Disadvantages
-May require training
-Observer’s presence may create artificial situation
-Potential for bias
-Potential to overlook meaningful aspects
-Potential for misinterpretation
-Difficult to analyse

Question 9

How can the reliability of observational research be enhanced?

Answer 9

• Record for reliability
• Structured tool
• Interobserver reliability when 2 or more researchers using unstructured ob

Question 10

What are the ethical implications of undisclosed (covert) participant observation?

Question 11

How can the observer attempt to gain access to the social situations of interest?

Question 12

Is observation culturally appropriate?

Question 13

Interviewing

Answer 13

A conversational practice where knowledge is produced through the interaction between an interviewer and an interviewee or a group of interviewees

Talking and listening to people.
Verbally asking program participants the program evaluation questions.
hearing the participant’s point of view in his or her own words.
Interviews can be either structured or unstructured, in person or over the telephone.
Done face-to-face or over the phone
Individual or group (i.e. a focus group)

Question 14

Types of interviews

Answer 14

Structured interviews – standardised questions (questionnaire approach; non conversational; may also have a few open ended questions; responses are consistent, enhancing reliability).

Semi-structured interviews - uses an interview guide; used for shorter interviews (common approach in qualitative research).

Unstructured interviews – often used alongside observation in qualitative research; focus on particular topic and techniques to steer the interview.

In-depth interview – an extensive form of interview.

Question 15

Interviews are useful when… (4)

Answer 15

When the subject is sensitive
When people are likely to be inhibited in speaking about the topic in front of others
When people have a low reading ability
When bringing a group of people together is difficult (e.g., in rural areas)

Question 16

Are interviews culturally appropriate? Things to consider:

Answer 16

Preferred by people with an oral culture
Language level proficiency; verbal skill proficiency
Politeness – responding to authority (thinking it’s unacceptable to say “no”), nodding, smiling, agreeing
Relationship/position of interviewer may be seen as interrogation
Direct questioning may be seen as impolite, threatening, or confrontational

Question 17

Focus groups

Answer 17

Structured small group interviews

“Focused” in two ways:
- Persons being interviewed are similar in some way (e.g. limited resource families, family services professionals, or elected officials).
- Information on a particular topic is guided by a set of focused questions

Question 18

Are focus groups culturally appropriate? Things to consider:

Answer 18

Issues of gender, age, class, clan differences
Issues of pride, privacy, and traditions.
Relationship with facilitator as prerequisite for rapport

Question 19

What is bracketing?

Answer 19

a process used by researchers mainly working within the Husserlian phenomenological tradition to identify their preconceived beliefs and opinions about the phenomenon under investigation in order to clarify how personal biases and experience might influence what is seen, heard and reported.

Apply bracketing – ways to set aside assumptions that you have in daily life about the topic you are investigating

Question 20

True or false. The quality of the research is often a result of the relationship between researcher and participant.

Answer 20

True. All Qualitative fieldwork methods rely on the researcher gaining the trust and
acceptance of the people/community being observed/interviewed or surveyed.

Question 21

What are 3 questioning approaches used in in-depth interviews?

Answer 21

Funnelling – from broad to more specific questions, designed to ease the participant into the interview.

Story telling – asking questions so the informant would respond with a story. Approach also to help informant to feel comfortable talking for an extended period. Example - Aroni et al. (2003) asked young people with asthma to tell the story of the diagnosis of their condition. However, as a ‘story’ reality can be distorted.

Solicited narratives - interviewer solicits a written narrative from the informant. Story then used for further discussion or in-depth interviews.

Question 22

Funnelling

Answer 22

A questioning approach – from broad to more specific questions, designed to ease the participant into the interview.

Question 23

Story telling

Answer 23

A questioning approach – asking questions so the informant would respond with a story. Approach also to help informant to feel comfortable talking for an extended period. Example - Aroni et al. (2003) asked young people with asthma to tell the story of the diagnosis of their condition. However, as a ‘story’ reality can be distorted.

Question 24

Solicited narratives

Answer 24

A questioning approach - interviewer solicits a written narrative from the informant. Story then used for further discussion or in-depth interviews.

Question 25

Interview tips

Answer 25

Keep language pitched to that of respondent
Avoid long questions
Create comfort
Establish time frame for interview
Avoid leading questions
Sequence topics
Be respectful
Listen carefully

Question 26

Journaling (Diary accounts)

Answer 26

The process of participants sharing thoughts, ideas, feelings and experiences through writing and/or other media

It blends personal reflections, accounts of events and descriptions of experiences

It can be used to collect data that would enrich and confirm the data already collected during interviews and to clarify data and seek responses to questions inadequately explored during the interview

Question 27

What study design is journalling used in?

Answer 27

It is used in phenomenological research studies to record participant experiences in their natural contexts.

Question 28

What are some recommendations for dealing with boundary issues in research? e.g. the ‘researcher-friend’, research or therapy?, being professional.

Answer 28

Recommendations – researchers, supervisors, HRECs to address these and related issues through protocols; formal guidelines and training on dealing with boundaries.

Question 29

Etic / Emi

Question 30

Triangulation – Data, methods, space

Question 31

Data Saturation

Question 32

Generalizability

Question 33

Representativeness

Question 34

Three concerns with participant observation.

Answer 34

Three concerns
1. Loss of researcher’s objectivity
2. Difficult for the researcher to participate and collect data simultaneously
3. Participation can be difficult for the researcher and the participants

Question 35

Non-participant observation and advantages

Answer 35

Non-participant - The observer watches the situation, openly or concealed, but does not participate.

Thus in this case, the researcher observes and records behaviors but does not interact or participate in the setting

Advantages
1. Less intrusive
2. Less likely to become emotionally involved

Observations can be open (e.g., ‘shadowing’ a health worker with his/her permission during routine activities) or concealed (e.g., ‘mystery clients’ trying to obtain antibiotics without medical prescription).

Observations can also be made on objects. For example, the presence or absence of a latrine and its state of cleanliness may be observed. Here observation would be the major research technique.

Question 36

Three types of “DATA” from observation

Answer 36

Three types of “DATA”
▪ Written records that contain information about the direct observations
▪ Video footage
▪ Reflections of the researcher’s reactions to the observation

Question 37

Interviews can be conducted with varying degrees of flexibility. The two extremes, high and low degree of flexibility. Describe them.

Answer 37

High degree of flexibility: The unstructured or loosely structured method of asking questions can be used for interviewing individuals as well as groups of people

Low degree of flexibility: Less flexible methods of interviewing are useful when the researcher is relatively knowledgeable about expected answers or when the number of respondents being interviewed is relatively large, then questionnaires may be used with a fixed list of questions in a standard sequence, which have mainly fixed or pre-categorised answers

Question 38

Data Collection Using Interviews

Answer 38

1. Audiotaping or videotaping the interview
   ▪ The preferred method for collecting data
   ▪ Can be intrusive and disruptive
2. Transcribing tapes involves producing a written file of what was said and done
   ▪ Time consuming
   ▪ Extremely difficult
   Transcripts become the field notes of an interview

Question 39

The Hawthorne effect, in observational research, is when:

Answer 39

participants behave in different ways than they would normally