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PYB210 > 8. Planned Comparisons and Pot Hoc Tests and Power and Effect > Flashcards

8. Planned Comparisons and Pot Hoc Tests and Power and Effect Flashcards

1
Q

what does the ANOVA tell us?

A

that there is a difference somewhere between the means

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2
Q

how to we determine where the difference(s) are?

A

with a priori and Post Hoc comparisons

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3
Q

when do you decide an a priori test

A

before to test a specific hypothesis

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4
Q

when are post hoc comparisons made?

A

after assessing the F ratio

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5
Q

when should a priori tests be used?

A

if we have a strong theoretical interest in certain groups and have evidenced based specific hypothesis regarding these groups then we can test these differences using a priori tests

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6
Q

what sort of tests are a priori?

A

planned comparisons or t-tests

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7
Q

what do a priori seek to compare?

A

only groups of interest

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8
Q

when should post hoc comparisons be used?

A

if we cannot predict exactly which means will differ.

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9
Q

what should be done before doing a post hoc comparison?

A

the overall ANOVA to see if the independent variable has an effect

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10
Q

what does post hoc mean?

A

after the fact

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11
Q

what does post hoc comparisons seek to do?

A

compare all groups to each other to explore differences this comparing all possible combination of means

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12
Q

what are the characteristics of a post hoc comparison/

A

less refined - more specific

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13
Q

what is an omnibus

A

the initial f ratio

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14
Q

what are planned comparisons also known as?

A

planned contrasts

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15
Q

what is weighting our group means?

A

we assign weights of contrast coefficients (c) to reflect the groups means (M) we wish to compare

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16
Q

what is the point of weighting our group means?

A

how we communicate with SPSS

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17
Q

how would we weight groups 1 and 2 when comparing them?

A 
a weight (c_1) of 1 to mean group 1 (M_1)
a weight (C_2_ of -1 to mean of group 2 (M_2)
A wright of 0 to groups 3 and 4 as they are not in the analysis we are condicting
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18
Q

true or false

weights and contrasts are the same thing?

A

true

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19
Q

what must the sum of all coefficients be when weighting?

A

0

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20
Q

why must the sum of all coefficients be 0?

A

because this is SPSS’s way of knowing that everything is fair and balanced. Groups (or sets of groups) which are being compared in a hypothesis must have equal, but opposite coefficients / weights
i.e. one group would be 1 and the other -1

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21
Q

what happens to the weights of groups when we are lumping them together in a hypothesis?

A

they must be given equal coeficcients of the same sign

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22
Q

what coefficient must the groups not being compared be assigned to?

A

0

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23
Q

what is the equation to test the significance of contrasts?

A

F_contrast = MS_contrast / MS_within

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24
Q

what is used for the error term in the F test for a contrast?

A

MS within from our ANOVA

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25
Q

how do we calculate the MS_contrast?

A

similar way to SS_between. the df is always 1

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26
Q

why is the df always 1 for a comparison F?

A

because we are only comparing two means (or two groups of means).
df = number of groups - 1
thus df = 2-1 = 1

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27
Q

what is the MS comparison the same as?

A

SS_comparison

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28
Q

when is the difference between two means not significant?

A

when:

F_observed

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29
Q

when is the difference between two means significant?

A

when:

F_observed > F_critical

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30
Q

wht are the assumptions for planned comparisons?

A

the same as the overall ANOVA:
all samples are independent
normality of the distribution
homogeneity of variance

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31
Q

How does SPSS help us overcome the homogeneity of variance assumption with planned comparisons?

A

when it runs the t-test for our contrasts it gives us the output for homogeneity assumed and homogeneity not assumed
If homogeneity is not assumed SPSS adjusts the df of our F critical to control for any inflation of type 1 error

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32
Q

what happens with error when we find a significant difference?

A

there is a chance we have a type 1 error

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33
Q

the more tests we conduct..?

A

the greater the type 1 error rate

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34
Q

what is the error rate per comparison (PC)?

A

the type 1 error associated with each individual test we conduct

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35
Q

what is the symbol of the PC error rate?

A

a

36
Q

what is the error rate per experiment (PE)?

A

it is the total number of type 1 errors we are likely to make in conducting all the tests required in our experiment

37
Q

what is the equation for error rate?

A

a x number of tests

38
Q

so when we need to conduct a number of tests, what should we do about the rising type 1 error rate

A

Bonferroni Adjusted a level may be used

39
Q

how does a Bonferroni Adjusted a level work?

A

divide a by the number of tests to be conducted (e.g. .05 / 2 = .025 if two tests are being condicted. then assess the follow up statistic sing the new a level

40
Q

what happens when the overall F is not significant before performing a post hoc comparison>

A

STOP there and go back to the drawing board

41
Q

what are the statistical tests that compare all means whilst controlling for type 1 error? (dont need to remember all of these)

A 
LSD - keast significant difference 
Tuckey's HSD - Honestly Significant Difference
Bonferonni adjusted comparisons
Newman-Keuls
Scheffe test
42
Q

what is the most commonly reccommended statistical test that compares all means?

A

tuckey’s because it is a good balance between power and error

43
Q

what does a significant F not tell us?

A

how big the effect the IV has on the DV is

does not tell us how important this effect is

44
Q

what is the significance of F dependent on?

A

the sample size and the number of conditions which determines the F comparison distribution

45
Q

what is the statistic that summarises the strength of the treatment effect (IV)?

A

eta squared (η^2)

46
Q

what does eta squared indicaate?

A

the proportion of the total variability in the data accounted for by the effect of the IV

47
Q

what does SS_Between represent?

A

what we can explain (due to IV)

48
Q

what does SS_Total represent?

A

total variability

49
Q

what does the ratio of SS_betweeen / SS_total give?

A

the proportion of variance the IV accounts for in total amount seen in DV

50
Q

what is the equation of eta squared?

A

η^2 = (t^2) / (t^2 + df)

this is the equal to SS_between / SS_total

51
Q

what is the full equation of eta squared?

A

η^2 = [ (S^2_between) (df between) ] / [(S^2_between)(df between) + (S^2 within)(dfwithin)

which is also SS between / SS total

52
Q

if a research article does not report effect size and we wish to calculate it, what is the equation that can be used?

A

[ (F)(dfBetween) ] / [ (F)(dfBetween) + dfWithin ].

53
Q

what does eta squared provide?

A

the percentage of variability in scores is due to the effect of manipulating the IV

54
Q

what are things to be aware of when measurign effect size for use in ANOVA?

A

It is a descriptive statistic not an inferential statistic so not the best indicatior of the effect size in population
It tends to be an overestimate of the effect size in the population

55
Q

what does eta squared range from?

A

0-1

56
Q

what is the scale that Cohen (1977) propose for effect size?

A

.01 = small effect
.06 = medium effect
greater than .14 = large effect

57
Q

what is the statistic that provides the effect size for a comparison between two means?

A

Cohen’s d

58
Q

what does Cohen’s d tell us?

A

how many SDs apart we estimate the two populations means we’re comparing to be. e.g. we compare the mean of the control group to each condition or lagest and smallest dose

59
Q

what is the formula for Cohen’s d?

A

• Cohen’s d = µ1-µ2/ population standard deviation

60
Q

where is the SD obtained from when calculating Cohen’s d?

A

the descriptive statistics for the group

61
Q

what is a quick way to calculate the estimated population SD for Cohen’s d?

A

square root of the error term (MS_within)

62
Q

what is the scale for cohen’s d?

A

Small effect = 0.20,
medium = 0.50,
large =0.8 0

63
Q

what is the overall mathematical formula for Cohen’s d?

A

Cohen’s d = M1 – M2 / √MS within

64
Q

where do we obtain MS_within from?

A

our ANOVA

65
Q

what does a theoretically important IV only account for?

A

small proportions of the variability in the data

66
Q

what does a theoretically unimportant IV account for?

A

a large proportion of variabolity in the data

67
Q

when is eta squared used

A

when reporting f ratio

68
Q

when is Cohen’s d used?

A

when reporting t-tests or post hoc

69
Q

what is the type 1 error rate when using p05?

A

5%

70
Q

why is replication of studies very important

A

in any experiment with any decision we dont know whether we have made a correct decision or an error

71
Q

what does shift α level from .05 to .01 do?

A

reduces type 1 error but increases type 2 error

72
Q

what is the most common way of achieving balance between these errors?

A

through estimating the power of the experiment

73
Q

what is the definition of power

A

probability of finding a significant effect when one exists in the population

74
Q

how is power conceptualised?

A

Power = 1- β

75
Q

what is sensitivity?

A

the ability of an experiment to detect a treatment effect when one actuall exists

76
Q

what is power?

A

it is a quantitative index of sensitivity which tells us the probability that our experiment will detect this effect

77
Q

what does Keppel (1992) argue that the power should be?

A

greater than .8 to ensure an experiment can pick up a moderate effect

78
Q

what is ensuring adequate power an issue of?

A

research design

79
Q

how can power be increased?

A

o Raising the a level (at the cost of more Type I errors) (raising alpha decreases beta so increases power)
o Reducing error variance (good design and measures)
o Increasing the sample size
o Increasing the number of conditions or groups
o Increasing the treatment effect size (good manipulations)

80
Q

why not use the largest n possible?

A

o Not always cheap or easy to use large samples,

o We need to know what is the acceptable minimum sample size to pick up a specific effect.

81
Q

what are the two main situations that we are concerned about power in?

A

o When we do not find a significant effect but there is evidence that we may have made a Type II error.
o When we are planning a new experiment and wish to ensure that we have adequate power to pick up the effect of our IV.

82
Q

what should we do before running an experiment to give it adequate power (greater than .8)?

A

we should determine the sample size that will allow this

83
Q

how can we estimate the required sample size?

A

by estimating the magnitude of the treatment effect

84
Q

how can we find the magnitude of the treatment effect?

A

o past research
o a pilot study
o an estimate of the minimum difference between means that you consider relevant or important (often used in clinical experiments) .

85
Q

what does a tiny effect size indicate?

A

that there is no evidence that IV has an effect

86
Q

what does it mean when effect size is reasonable but power is low?

A

that there may be a power issue and could try to rerun the experiment with an adequate power

87
Q

what is the relationship between alpha, beta and power (effectsize and power and sample size and power?)

A

o Increase alpha, decrease beta, increase Power
o Increase effect size, increase power
o Increase Sample size, increase power

PYB210 (11 decks)

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