7.2 Why Has Migration Become Increasingly Complex? Flashcards
How has economic globalisation lead to the emergence of new source areas and host destinations?
An increasing number of countries and their economies have become more interdependent the increasing complexity of global migration can be linked to this intensification of the globalisation process. Major bilateral corridors and traditional migration partnerships have remained strong, but in addition new places of origin and new destinations for migrants have emerged as the effects of globalisation have spread
How has migration become more complex through globalisation?
- increased international interactions between economies, cultures and society.
- world has shrunk- shorter travel time
- improved communication and tech
- increased understanding of other socio-economic cultures and norms- potential trade
- dismantling of trade restrictions
What is an inter-regional example of contemporary migration patterns that reflect recent changing global economic trends?
Migration of highly skilled workers from China, India and Brazil to the USA - including graduates, especially in science, mathematics and technology, and those in professional and business services, attracted by high salaries and the quality of life.
Migration of workers from India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Egypt, the Philippines and Indonesia to oil-producing Gulf States and Saudi Arabia- attracted by increased demand for labour, relatively high wages, ease of returning formal remittances, accommodation, and improved transport and communications.
What is an intra-regional example of contemporary migration patterns that reflect recent changing global economic trends?
Rapid increase of international migrant stock (10.2 million, 2019) among ASEAN member states- the fast-growing economies of Singapore. Malaysia and Thailand are the main destinations (Figure 7.11): and Myanmar, Lao PDR and Cambodia, the main sources. Most migrants. are low-skilled, many undocumented, seeking employment and higher wages via cyclical migration to countries of higher socio-economic development.
Increased migration streams within South America. especially to the ‘southern cone’ of Argentina, Chile, Paraguay and Uruguay. The main drivers are disparities in wages and labour opportunities. Regional integration (Mercosur, Andean Community trading blocs) has also eased immigration through free movement of labour.
Return migration has been a high proportion of migrant flows within the EU-Romania (93% of its total migration), Lithuania (88%), Latvia (72 % ). Portugal (64%), Poland (63%) and Estonia (58%). This includes young workers having achieved their pre-planned economic goals after two or three years-often taking low-skilled jobs abroad before returning to more prestigious positions in their home country.
What is an internal example of contemporary migration patterns that reflect recent changing global economic trends?
Internal migrant flows within EDCs such as India, China, Mexico and Brazil, driven by FDI which has created agglomerations of economic activity near large urban centres. Rural-urban migration is not new but it has been reinforced and is a major element of the global migration system.
Why has there been a higher concentration of migrants that are young workers?
The main reason for international migration by the younger elements of the labour force is economic- greater employment opportunities, higher wages and the possibility of remittance.
Demand for workers in the oil-producing countries of the Middle East such as UAE, Qatar and Saudi Arabia is an example of young labour driven migration. Numbers of foreign-born residents in UAE have increased dramatically in the twenty-first century from 2.45 million in 2000 to 8.5 million in 2019.
Typical of the patterns in this area, in Saudi Arabia in 2019 the migrant population included 0.91 million born in India, 1.09 million Bangladeshis and 0.95 million originating in Pakistan. The flows were dominated by young males, with a high proportion working in construction. The majority were low skilled, many not educated beyond primary level. Only 3.6 per cent of migrants were employed in health, and 2.6 per cent in education sectors.
Why has there been an increase in the concentration of female migrants?
Globally there has been an increase in the number of women and girl migrants in the twenty-first century. In 2019. 51 per cent of all migrants in developed countries were female in developing countries the figure was43 per cent Regionally, in Europe, Latin America and the Caribbean, North America and Oceania, female participation in international migration exceeded that of men. The opposite was the case for Africa and Asia (Figure 7.13), although the percentage of female migrants in sub-Saharan Africa increased from 406 cent in 1990 to 46.4 per cent in 2013.
Reasons for the differences centre on the regulations governing admission and departure of migrants in different countries of destination and origin many of which are linked to the status of women in these countries.
In the last two decades growth in the number of female migrants can be accounted for by their greater independence, status, freedom and increasing importance as main income earners.
In 2013 there were 101 countries in which the female international migrant stock was greater than that of men (Figure 7.14). The highest were Latvia (60.8%), Estonia (59.8%) and Poland (58.8%). The country with the lowest percentage of female migrants was Bangladesh with only 13.4%.
A trend of growing significance is the migration of highly skilled women. In the first decade of the twenty-first century, tertiary educated women migrants in OECD countries increased by 80 per cent. During this time the emigration of female graduates and other highly skilled women was higher than that of highly skilled/educated men for African and Latin American countries. This was also true of women in India, China and the Philippines. The main destinations include Canada, USA, UK and Israel, countries in which there is less discrimination in the labour market and where in general women’s rights are better respected.
What is bilateral migration enabled by?
Trading Partnerships.
NAFTA- North american free trade association.
ASEAN- Association of south east asia nations
MERCOSOUR- “southern cone”- economic and political agreement
How are flows in south-south corridors now equal in magnitude to those in South-North corridors?
UN statistics for 2013 show that South-South international migrant stock now outnumbers that of the South-North flows (Table 7.8).
Until the second decade of the twenty-first century the largest international migrant flows had been from the poorer less developed countries of the South to the wealthier more developed countries of the North. But as global economies have become more interconnected, South-South flows have increased significantly. In 2015, South-South flows were expected to be equal to all other flows combined.
South-South flows are explained mainly by labour migration. Evidence for this is that two-thirds of migrant remittances were sent between countries of the South in 2013. An example is the Bangladesh-India corridor which had the world’s third largest bilateral flow of 3.3 million migrants.
Another factor is the increase in refugees fleeing persecution or conflict, such as the 2.3 million having migrated from Afghanistan to Pakistan,
What are the main reasons for the magnitude of south-south flows?
- restrictive administrative barriers for migrants from the South attempting to enter the North often in response they redirect their migration to another South country
- the number of fast-growing economies in the South which offer employment opportunities and are Increasingly accessible
- increased awareness of opportunities in the South resulting from improved communications and developing social and business networks
- preventative costs of moving to more distant richer countries.
How is Burkina Faso to ivory coast an example of south-south migration?
West Africa has high levels of intra-regional international migration. Burkina Faso is a landlocked. low-income country with GDP of US$820 per head. It is bordered to the south by the Ivory Coast, a lower- middle-income country, which is the world’s largest exporter of cocoa, and in 2018 had a GDP of US$1716 per head.
In 2018, there were 243,776 Ivorians living in Burkina recipient. Of all refugees 85 per cent live in de Faso. Many of these settled in Burkina Faso having escaped conflict in the Ivory Coast. There were also 927,756 million born in Burkina Faso living in the Ivory Coast; this excess movement of migrants from Burkina Faso to the Ivory Coast is explained by:
- employment opportunities and higher wages available in the Ivory Coast’s cocoa and coffee plantations. The income disparity between the two countries is relatively small but sufficient to encourage significant flows.
- opportunities for migrant farmers in the more fertile lands of the Ivory Coast
- former French colonial administration in both countries has led to shared language, currency and a cultural system which has made it easier for those of Burkinabé descent to travel to the more prosperous Ivory Coast
How is Myanmar to Thailand an example of a South-South corridor?
The largest ASEAN migrant corridor is the flow from Myanmar to Thailand, both “South’ countries, involving 1.9 million migrants. Thailand is Southeast Asia’s fastest growing economy and many migrants who live below the poverty line in the lower-income country, Myanmar, are attracted for economic reasons. Thailand needs to resolve labour shortages in agriculture, fisheries, manufacturing, construction and domestic services. Moreover it has introduced a legal daily minimum wage of 300 baht (US$9), some ten times that of Myanmar. The geographical proximity of the two countries and the freer flows of labour possible within the newly formed ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) are further contributory factors. In addition many are refugees from the Myanmar government, escaping forced labour in development projects such as railway construction as part of Myanmar’s economic reforms.
What is a refugee?
A refugee is someone who has moved outside the country of his nationality or usual domicile because of genuine fear of persecution or death According to the United Nations High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR) the number of refugees worldwide increased from 15.7 million in 2012 to 260 million in 2019. In 2019 Syria was still the largest source of refugees (in 2015 it overtook Afghanistan who had held this position for three decades) Turkey was the largest recipient. Of all refugees 85% live in developing countries.
What is an asylum seeker?
An asylum seeker is a person who seeks entry to another country by claiming to be a refugee Those judged not to be refugees nor requiring international protection can be sent back to their home countries Globally in 2019, 16.2 million asylum application were submitted, the Russian Federation, Germany and USA were the largest recipients of these applications.
How has conflict and persecution increased numbers of refugees?
The crisis in Syria in the second decade of the twenty first century has been a major factor in the recent increase of refugees. The civil war, which began in March 2011, led to the internal displacement of 6.6 million people and over 5.6 million international refugees (UNHCR)
A high percentage of the refugees have moved. relatively short distances to countries which share al border with Syria (Figure 7.15): Turkey (3.6 million) and Lebanon (892,000) being the biggest recipients: (2020). Residents of Kobani, Syria, for example, have been living in tented camps near Turkish border towns. The intention is to return to their neighbourhoods and farmlands as soon as the border crossing is reopened.
Lebanon has been so overwhelmed by Syrian refugees that in January 2015 the government imposed the need for an entry visa whereas before this date movement between the two countries was largely unrestricted. Syrians seeking work must be sponsored by a Lebanese individual or company.
Other refugees have embarked on longer and more complex journeys to reach their planned destination in the EU. For example, many Syrians reach Aksaray, an Istanbul neighbourhood, where they live temporarily before making contact with the agents of the traffickers. The route to Europe depends to some extent on their wealth: there is the less costly sea route with greater risk; or the more expensive but safer arrangement for a fake passport and direct flight.
What are the main reasons for the large number of refugees of globally?
- the effects of conflict, including personal safety. loss of homes, access to services, damage to other Infrastructure including communications
- political persecution, discrimination and violation of human rights
- economic hardship including forced labour and modern slavery
- the impacts of natural hazards.
What are examples of some changes in national immigration and emigration policies?
National migration policies are designed to meet the economic, social and political needs of a country. For example, some ACS such as the UK, Australia and Canada use a points-based system to satisfy labour shortages in particular sectors. Some developing countries actively encourage emigration, largely to assist in the development process through the financial benefits of migrant remittances, and the skills, ideas and business contacts brought by returning migrants
Differing effects of recent policy changes are illustrated by Pakistan and Canada.
What is the importance of the emigration policy in Pakistan?
Pakistan is a lower middle-income country. In 2020 Its population was 212.2 million, 64 per cent of whom were under 30. It has a GDP per head of US$142 and an HDI of 0.560.
The Pakistan government is pro-emigration The are 8 million Pakistanis working abroad and 96 per cent of these are in the Gulf Cooperation Council countries (Table 7.10). In 2017, migrant remittances amounted to US$20 billion (the sixth largest in the world) which is important to the socio-economic development of country. This has been recognised formally in Pakistans new emigration policy.
What is the Pakistan National Emigration Policy?
The Pakistan National Emigration Policy has been drafted by the Ministry of Overseas Pakistanis and Human Resource Development jointly with the International Labour Organization (ILO). It aims to promote emigration and safeguard migrants, and includes the following requirements:
- Ratification of ILO and UN Conventions regarding rights of workers and protection of basic human rights
- Promotion of the export of Pakistani manpower abroad
- Positive steps to encourage female participation w overseas employment (currently only 0.12 per cent
- Support for social networks and associations abroad (Pakistani diaspora)
- Establishment of training institutions to help Pakistani youth in preparation for working abroad
- Enhancement of the impact of economic remittances and skills of returning migrants for development
What is the Pakistan National Emigration Policy?
The Pakistan National Emigration Policy has been drafted by the Ministry of Overseas Pakistanis and Human Resource Development jointly with the International Labour Organization (ILO). It aims to promote emigration and safeguard migrants, and includes the following requirements:
- Ratification of ILO and UN Conventions regarding rights of workers and protection of basic human rights
- Promotion of the export of Pakistani manpower abroad
- Positive steps to encourage female participation w overseas employment (currently only 0.12 per cent
- Support for social networks and associations abroad (Pakistani diaspora)
- Establishment of training institutions to help Pakistani youth in preparation for working abroad
- Enhancement of the impact of economic remittances and skills of returning migrants for development
What is the importance of the immigration policy in Canada?
Canada is a high-income country. In 2018 it had GDP per capita of US$46.234, a GDP growth rate of 1.9 percent and an HDI of 0.922. Its total population was 37.06 million. Changes were made to its immigration policy in January 2015 to address the skills gap in the labour market.
The new policy is aimed at the country’s long- term requirements for engineers, IT specialists and health care workers. Potential migrants are ranked on 1200-point system which enables young. highly skilled immigrants to be fast-tracked. Every effort is made to employ a Canadian citizen first, but half the necessary points can be awarded to migrant applicants with a permanent job offer from an employer-especially if the employer is located in one of the provincial employment schemes ay from the big cities of Toronto, Vancouver. or Montreal. Applicants in their twenties receive maximum points for age, and graduates are also favoured.
Canada agreed to take 10,000 Syrian refugees over a the year period from 2015.
What are corridors and bilateral flows?
Bilateral migration is simply the migrant flow between two countries. The number of migrants, their composition and the directions of flow are important characteristics of bilateral migration. Some bilateral corridors that were very large and long-standing such as that between Mexico and USA have now been significantly reduced. Others could not match this in scale, but new and significant flows have been recorded in the last decade. For example, migration between Myanmar and Bangladesh includes large numbers of refugees
What explains the strong bilateral migrant corridors?
As we have seen, the decision to migrate depends on many factors, real or perceived, in both place of origin and potential destination. Explanation of these strong bilateral migrant corridors includes economic, social and political influences:
- Costs of travel which may be related to proximity
- Ease of access and communication between the two countries
- Efficiency and cost of sending remittances
- Employment opportunities and wage differentials
- Established diaspora communities and networks
- Effects of conflict and persecution
- Migration policy, including accession to economic unions and policy on refugees
- Former colonial influence, such as language
Global integration and interdependence have proceeded rapidly. Flows of trade, capital, technology, information, ideas and people across international boundaries have not only increased but have become more complex in their geographical patterns. International migration is a very important part of these globalisation processes, contributing significantly to social and economic interdependence
This has brought benefits and opportunities for many, but others have been excluded from the process or have experienced the effects of inequalities and injustice. These issues can be illustrated by a case of an EDC such as Brazil.
How many countries imposed travel restrictions in 2020?
International- 170
Internal- 150
What country holds the most migrants ?
USA- 50.6 million
Saudi Arabia had the largest percentage of migrants
How does access to host nations for migrants differ?
Henley Passport Index- global ranking of countries according to the entry freedom of their citizens. Influenced by nationality.
What proportion of international migrants are labour migrants?
169 million
What is the breakdown of male and female migrants?
Female- 135 million
Male- 146 million
Why is digital technology so important throughout migration?
- remittances
- politics of migration
- avoid abusive and exploitative migrant smugglers
How many refugees have fled conflict in syria?
6.7 million
- Syrian Arab Republic
- Afghanistan
- South Sudan
- Myanmar
- DCR
These nations compromise half of the worlds migrants
What is the significance of Africa in migration?
migrants from Africa travel to Europe.
- crisis in central sahel- conflict and violence, worst humanitarian disaster in Africa
- Receives some of the largest international remittances globally.
What is the importance of labour migration in Southern Asia?
- largest inflows of international remittances in the world
- 2020- USD 8.3 billion
What changes have been made to the immigration and asylum policy in Europe?
2021- outsourcing the process of claims in ‘safe countries’, undermine the international protection system.
