7.1 What are the Contemporary Patterns of Global Migration? Flashcards
What was the number of international migrants in 2020?
There has been significant growth in the numbers of people migrating across international borders in the twenty-first century. In 2020, according to the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), 281 million people- 3.6 per cent of the world’s population-were living outside their country of origin.
Why has migration increased?
Migration is inextricably linked to globalisation processes Places are increasingly interconnected and it is not surprising that the magnitude, complexity and impact of global migration make it a priority issue for almost all nations. Migration policies, border control and migrant safety have become increasingly important issues The global migration system is dynamic flows of people constantly changing in number, direction of movement and in demographic and ethnic composition. International migration occurs at differing scales: between neighbouring countries in Europe such as France and Germany; across the globe between the UK and Australia; and between major global regions such as Africa and Europe.
What are the reasons for migration?
The reasons for migration are diverse and the decisions of potential international migrants depend on many factors. Globally the majority of migrants are economic migrants, seeking work and social opportunities, often sending money back to their family, known as migrant remittances. According to the ILO, 72.7 per cent of the 206.6 million working age migrants globally are economic migrants. According to the UNHCR, there are also a growing number of refugees (25.9 million), fleeing conflict zones and persecution, and asylum seekers (3.5 million).
What are the impacts of migration?
The impact of migration has affected every country either as a place of origin, transit or destination. The consequences are demographic, economic, social, cultural, environmental and political Migrants make meaningful contributions to host countries. But at the same time international migration entails loss of human resources from countries of origin and may lead to tensions in the country of destination.
What is the equation for international migration?
International migration is one element of total population change in a country. This can be expressed in a simple equation and exemplified by UK statistics.
Population change= (births - deaths) +/- international migration
The fact that the migration figures are estimates points to the issue of defining an international migrant Lack of uniformity among countries creates difficulty in obtaining accurate, reliable and comparable statistics This is compounded by the many undocumented, illegal migrations.
What does the UN define a long term migrant as?
The UN defines a long term migrant as a person who moves to a country other than his or her usual residence for a period of at least a year. And a short- term migrant is a person who moves for at least three months but less than a year
What is net migration?
The term net migration refers to the difference between numbers of immigrants and emigrants for a particular country in 2018, the UK had an estimated net migration gain of 283,000 in the year ending 2019 it was 229,000 (the lowest net migration since 2003)
According to Eurostar EU countries with the largest net migration gain in 2018 were Germany, 394,213 and Spain, 332.939. Those with the greatest net migration loss were France, 55.510 (provisional) and Romania 55,006 (estimated)
What are the scales and direction of migration?
The scale and direction of international migration and the composition of migrant flows are complex and can be demonstrated by the immigration and emigration patterns for the UK.
What are the scales and compositions of migration in the UK?
In total 5.5 million people born in the UK lived abroad in 2020. The main reasons were:
- Employment opportunities- the majority were of working age, including a high proportion in managerial occupations
- Retirement - a large number were of retireme High UK house prices enable many to sell up and more cheaply abroad, often in a locality with a climate and good quality of life
- Family reunification-moving to join relatives over
There were 93 million foreign-born people living in the UK in 2018. The composition of this immigrant population can be analysed according to gender and ethnic origin.
There is also a wide range of ethnic diversity among immigrants London has the largest number of immigrants of all regions in the UK (36.2 per cent) Asian countries have the largest representation in the UK, with India more than that of any other nationality at 9.1 per cent of the share.
Of the 612,000 immigrants moving to the UK in 2019, 25 per cent of these had secured an employment contract before arrival, and 8 per cent were looking for work 35 per cent were students in full-time education and 10 per cent were seeking family reunification.
What are inter-regional migrant flows?
Many thousands of people have risked their lives fleeing conflict and instability in Africa and the Middle East in the last decade in order to reach European territory. Often having travelled overland across desert areas, the migrants are transported and sometimes set adrift in small vessels in the Mediterranean by people traffickers. According to the International Organisation for Migration (IOM), 3279 died at sea in the crossings in 2014. However, deaths at sea had shrunk to 683 for the period 1 January to 17 July 2019 which was just 47 per cent of the same period in 2018
One migration route is in the central Mediteran Libyan ports to Italy’s most southerly point, the island of Lampedusa. Others include West African route Spain via its North African territories of Ceuta and and the Canary Islands. Large numbers of migas crossed between Turkey and Greece. Numbers of migrants increased significantly in 2015, this bear a major issue of rescue and border control for the te coastguard and Frontex, the EU’s border manage agency, as well as the UN’s Refugee Agency UNHC many NGOs concerned with migrant welfare.
Tunisia replaced Libya as the main country of departure for migrants detected on the Central Mediterranean route in the final quarter of 2018 Departures from Libya have fallen by 87 per cent, while departures from Algeria fell by almost half.
In 2018 the Central Mediterranean route experienced the biggest drop in the number of irregular migrants. The total number of irregular border crossings plunged 80 per cent on this route to 23,485, the lowest number since 2012.
What is the lee migration model?
The Lee migration model acknowledges the factors influencing emigration and immigration
Migrations are caused by:
- push factors these are negative factors which operate in a migrant’s current location
- pull factors, these are the perceived advantages of a potential destination which attracts migrants
in many instances, the decision to migrate is influenced by a combination of factors these can be economic social political and environmental
This model provides a useful framework for the understanding of international migration. Places of origin and destination possess attributes which each potential migrant perceives differently according to their personal characteristics and circumstances
The Lee model also incorporates the idea of intervening obstacles. These could occur at any point from origin to destination, and include costs physical features such as ns, rivers, mountain ranges: climatic factors: health transport and cultural factors such as language
What are intra-regional migrant flows?
International migration within the EU-27 is complex. In any one year not only is there significant movement between the EU member states but also between many non-EU countries and the EU.
In 2012, 1.7 million people resident in an EU country migrated to another EU country. And a further 1.7 million moved to the EU from countries outside. Furthermore 2.7 million people migrated from the EU to a non-EU state.
Why has there been an increase in intra-regional migrant flows to Europe?
The size of international EU migrations is explained partly by the Schengen Agreement which though not applicable to every EU state, allows freedom of movement within most of the EU across its internal national borders.
it can also be explained by recent EU expansion which has increased the potential number of migrants. The Czech Republic, Estonia, Latvia Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Cyprus, Hungary, Slovakia and Slovenia all joined the EU in 2004 Romania and Bulgaria in 2007, and Croatia in 2013. Most of these countries have a relatively high proportion of population in working age groups seeking employment. They are also attracted by higher elsewhere within the EU.
The overriding motive for migration is economic. For example. Polish accession to the EU in 2004 stimulated a new wave of immigration from Poland to the UK. Polish migrants were attracted by greater employment opportunities, higher wages, better living standards and ease of return, intended after perhaps two or three years of earning. In 2013 there were approximately 660.000 Poles living in the UK
In the same year there were also 40,000 UK migrants living in Poland. Many of these were business professionals the potential business market in Poland was attractive and open to innovation and inward investment. Some were employed by MNCs and all were benefiting from the quality of life in a county where the cost of living is lower than the UK
Intra-regional migration within the EU is also explained by education, retirement, joining family return flows.
What is the relationship between migration and development?
There is a close relationship between migration and development
- Migration can contribute significantly to development it can be a positive process for stability, economic growth and socio-economic change
- Inequalities in levels of development can be a cause of migration this has a major influence on the direction and scale of global migrant flows
What is the importance of migrant remittances?
One statistical measure of international migration which is linked to development is the value of migrant remittances. These are private funds sent by migrants usually to the non-migrant members of their family
The financial framework for the international transfer of this money is being strengthened. Therefore official figures are increasingly accurate, but in reality the amounts are much higher
Remittances are of considerable importance in the development process as a percentage of the recipient country’s GDP Development is measured according to the UN’s Human Development Index (HDI), a composite index incorporating social and economic indices for life expectancy, education and GDP per capita.
Migrant remittances to the more advanced countries. with higher HDL, are a lower percentage of GDP. For LIDCS and EDCs, they represent a higher proportion of GDP, and therefore are of greater significance to their economy and development. For example, in 2019, US$6.88 bilion was sent by migrants as remittances to the USA, less than 0.1 per cent of GDP: India received more than ten times this amount. US$83.13 billion, 2.8 per cent of GDP, and Haiti received much less in absolute terms, US$3.27 billion, but this was 37.1 percent of GDP
Not all poor countries receive large migrant remittances. Potential migrants from sub-Saharan Africa countries such as Sudan (HDI 0.507, remittances only 1.4 per cent of GDP) are affected by restrictive immigration policies of developed countries and costs of travel, including payments to traffickers.
Why is migration a key factor in development?
International organisations such as the United Nations and the International Organisation for Migration (OM recognise the importance of migration as a key factor in development. The Joint Migration and Development Initiative, implemented as part of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) post-2015 sustainable development agenda is one strategy designed to harness the potential of migration for development.
Global migrations are intrinsically related to flows of money ideas technology This transfer of resources promoting stability growth and development
What are the monetary transfers of migration?
Monetary transfers are not evident in the billions worldwide remittances. These flows of money have been made easier, more efficient and more secure through the use of technology. This includes mobile money transfers made more reliable by cash transfer programming and the use of smartphones, which have become more prevalent.
What is the sharing of ideas in migration?
Global migration also leads to the geographical diffusion of ideas, information and values which can be the geographical transmitted back to place of origin. This includes ideas on family size, education and marriage, referred to as social remittances, information on migrant reception and progress at the destination can be useful for prospective migrants And values such as democracy and other norms of behaviour can flow from one country to another through use of social media when migrants return.
How are migration and technology linked?
Technology is increasingly important, it used for example, by international humanitarian organ including NGOs, to assess crises so that response be where needs are greatest. Human mobility s conducted through use of big data including m phone records and credit card transactions. These in addition to existing cartography, satellite imagery field reports, including conventional media reports crowd-sourced data from text messages, emails and tweets are used in crisis mapping. And use of smartphones and digital data collection to give access to numbers of urban internally displaced persons (IDPS) in Pakistan Many IDPS flee to urban areas rather than the established camps due to perception of increased economic and social opportunities. The IDP Vulnerability Assessment and Profiling Project (VAP) has been set up jointly with the Pakistan government and fourteen humanitarian organisations. Data collected by surveys using smartphones are uploaded to an online database designed for automated analysis of around 400000 urban IDPs so that the most vulnerable can be targeted for assistance.
What are the positives of migration?
Stability, economic growth and development
How does migration promote stability?
- Migrant remittances are a source of foreign exchange which can contribute to economic stability of the recipient country
- Returning migrants have gained new ideas and values including democracy and equality- peacebuilding and conflict resolution
- Youthful migrant working populations contribute to a more balanced age structure and population growth
How does migration promote economic growth?
- GDP and tax base of the host nation can be boosted by working migrants
- Migrants are consumers and can stimulate local economies in a host country, can open up new markets
- Migrants can fill skill gaps and shortages in the labour market of a host country at local and national scales
- Migrant remittances can supplement household income, stimulate consumption, provide funds for local investment and stimulate local multiplier effects in the country of origin of the migrants.
How does migration promote development?
- Skills and knowledge acquired by returning migrants can be of benefit to countries of origin
- Migrants can create networks which ease flows of skills, financial resources, values and ideas through their links to diaspora associations, including professional, business, social and religious networks
- UN ‘migration and development’ projects between partner countries are involving families, local authorities, and public and private service providers in effective ‘bottom-up’ approaches to development.
What are the negatives of migration?
Inequalities, conflicts and injustices
How does migration promote inequalities?
- Countries of origin lose a proportion of the young, vibrant and fittest element of the labour force; this may contribute to downward economic spiral at local, regional and national scales.
- Often it is the better educated that migrate; this represents a ‘brain drain’ and loss of human resources in the country of origin.
- The demographic selectiveness of international migration causes redistribution of population of reproductive age; this influences crude birth rates in countries of origin (decline) and destination (growth).
- Migrant remittances can increase inequality between families who receive them and those who do not.
How does migration promote conflicts?
- Social conflict can develop between host communities and ‘newcomers’; people of a particular culture or ethnic origin may find difficulty integrating perhaps because of language.
- Immigrant populations, especially if concentrated in specific areas, can place pressure on service provision such as education, health and housing in the host country.
- International borders can be areas of conflict for border control authorities, traffickers and illegal migrants.
How does migration promote injustices?
- Migrants are vulnerable to violation of their human rights as a result of forced labour, exploitation of women and children, and human trafficking.
- Treatment of asylum seekers can include being held in detention centres, not being allowed to work, and being supported on meagre financial resources fór food, sanitation and clothing for the duration of application.
- The plight of refugees in terms of shelter, food, water, medicines and safety, including possibility of return to country of origin where risks are high.
What other problems are associated with migration?
Problems created by international migration may be economic, social, cultural or political And the impacts may exist in countries of origin and destination.
Areas of potential conflict and injustice are exemplified by:
- reported human rights violations in detention camps for Myanmar refugees on the Thai-Malaysian border
- the new fence and high-tech surveillance at the Bulgaria-Turkey border
- the refugee camp and Channel Tunnel at Calais. Another camp, “the Jungle”. outside Calais contained over 3000 migrants in February 2016-mostly unaccompanied young males
Migrant flows are spatially uneven. Globally the South-North and South-South migrations are dominant. The transfer of ideas and money are closely related to these patterns of inequality in migration, and tend to flow in the opposite direction back to the place of migrant origin. For example, the talent-based immigration policies of countries such as Canada and the USA encourage flows of highly skilled migrants from LDCs and EDCs, and this gives rise to consequent contra-flow of social and financial remittances.
Access to technology in some countries limited and reflects low levels of socio-development and infrastructure for ICT. For an many low- and middle-income countries lack the skilled human resources and computer forces to analyse digital data or download and use satellite imagery.
In some countries, government or military c of information and limited broadband speed affect the work of civilian relief organisations. These inequalities restrict the effective management of conflict and injustices linked to migration.
What are push factors (forced migration)?
- wars causing refugees
- racial discrimination
- unemployment
- forced labour
- natural disasters
- poverty
- starvation
- lack of basic amenities
- religious/political persecution
- overpopulation
What are some pull factors (voluntary migration)?
- Better climate
- better healthcare and education
- family reunification
- better housing
- employment with higher wages
- cleaner, safer environment
- better lifestyle
- improved prospects
What is the Ernest Ravenstein theory of migration?
The majority of migrants only go a short distance as migration proceeds step by step. Migrants would only go to one of the great centres of commerce or industry if long distance.
Each current of migration creates a compensating counter-current.
likely migrants:
- adults: families rarely migrate out of country of birth
- natives of towns are less migratory than those of rural areas
Major cause is economic
What are key global migration trends?
- COVID saw a record drop in migrants
- Migrants contribute more to taxes than they receive in benefits, health and education
- Migrants are concentrated in urban areas
- Europe had the most migrants in 2020- 86.7 million, followed by Asia- 85.6 million and USA- 58.7 million
- total estimated number of 281 million international migrants
- Median age is 39
- 73% were of working age
What were the migration patterns in 2020?
- 702 billion in migrant remittances
- India was the top remittance recipient
- The top remittance source was the US
