7. The Relationship between Media and its Content

Question 1

3 methodological problems with researching the effects of the media

Answer 1

Difficult to establish whether it’s media or other social factors that cause the alleged effects (can’t isolate media)
Hard to establish which type of media cause which effects (E.g. TV, films or games?)
Practically impossible to establish what people’s values and behaviour might have been without any media influence (E.g. would people be racist without media exposure?)

Question 2

What is “how passive or active are the audiences” about?

Answer 2

About the extent to which media audiences engage with the media they consume - do they accept what they consume or do they interpret, criticise or reject it?

Question 3

What is “how powerful are the media in affecting audiences” about?

Answer 3

How influential are the media compared to other influences like personal experiences or socialisation?

Question 4

Two difference types of models on media audiences and effects

Answer 4

Active audience models
Passive audience models

Question 5

What do active audience models see the media and audiences as?

Answer 5

See the media as less influential than the passive audience approach
Believe audiences vary in terms of social characteristics and personal experiences. These variations will influence their choices in the way they use and interpret the media

Question 6

5 active audience models

Answer 6

The two step flow model
Selective filtering
Reception analysis
The cultural effects model
The uses and gratifications model

Question 7

Key concept of the two step flow model

Answer 7

Opinion leaders

Question 8

Who are opinion leaders? (two step flow)

Answer 8

The people with influence as other members other networks respect their opinions

Question 9

Who are social networks dominated by according to the two step flow model?

Answer 9

They are dominated by opinion leaders

Question 10

Two stages that media content goes through before it has effects on the audience according to the two step flow model

Answer 10

The opinion leader exposed to the media content where they interpret the texts and form an opinion on them
They then pass on their opinions to others in their social groups, who are influenced by the interpretation

Question 11

How can the two step flow model be criticised for being too simplistic?

Answer 11

Because media content can be interpretated by different individuals in different groups. People are in multiple social networks so therefore have different influences from opinion leaders

Question 12

How can the two step flow model be criticised for not recognising free will?

Answer 12

It suggests people are vulnerable to manipulation of opinion leaders and doesn’t recognise that people can shape their own opinions

Question 13

What type of approach is selective filtering? (it’s an active audience model but that’s not the answer)

Answer 13

It’s an interpretivist approach

Question 14

According to selective filtering, what are the three filters that people apply when they see media content?

Answer 14

Selective exposure - people choose media messages that fit with their existing views
Selective perception - people choose to accept or reject a message depending on whether it fits their views and interests
Selective retention - people will forget material that isn’t in line with their views

Question 15

Reception analysis

Answer 15

Media texts contain an intended meaning (dominant ideology) which they expect audiences to believe
Most people will interpret media texts in the way they were intended because the dominant view appears as the normal and reasonable option
Other audiences will interpret it differently due to their social situations and experiences

Question 16

What type of model is the cultural effects model?

Answer 16

A neo-Marxist model

Question 17

What does the cultural effects model NOT regard audiences as?

Answer 17

Doesn’t regard them as simply passive consumers of media content, however it does believe the media do have some effects on the audience

Question 18

The cultural effects model and dominant ideology

Answer 18

The media will generally spread the dominant ideology, but it accepts audiences interpret the media in different ways depending on their characteristics and own experiences

Question 19

Long term influence of the media according to the cultural effects model

Answer 19

The media gradually influence the audience over a period of time which gradually shapes people’s everyday view of the world
E.g. if we nearly always see MEGs linked to crime, over time we will form this stereotype

Question 20

Criticism of the cultural effects model

Answer 20

Fails to recognise journalists have some independence and can sometimes be very critical of the dominant ideology

Question 21

What type of theory is the uses and gratifications model?

Answer 21

Pluralist

Question 22

How is the uses and gratifications model the model which sees the audience as the most active?

Answer 22

It believes media audiences are thinking, active human beings who use the media in various ways for their OWN personal interests (gratifications)

Question 23

Variety of the media according to the uses and gratifications model

Answer 23

The variety of uses of the media means people make conscious choices, select and interpret what they consume and use them for a range of needs
The different uses mean the effects of the media are different for everyone

Question 24

Criticism of the uses and gratifications model: what does it overestimate and underestimate?

Answer 24

Overestimates the power of the audience to influence media content
Underestimates the influence of the media to shape choices people make

Question 25

Criticism of the uses and gratifications model: what doesn’t it do which the two step flow and cultural effects models do?

Answer 25

Doesn’t allow for the group aspects of media audiences

Question 26

Passive audience model

Answer 26

The hypodermic syringe model

Question 27

Who developed the hypodermic syringe model?

Answer 27

The Frankfurt School of Marxists

Question 28

What did the Frankfurt School see the media as?

Answer 28

An agent of ideological control / a part of the ISA

Question 29

What is the audience seen as according to the hypodermic syringe model?

Answer 29

Unthinking, passive receivers of media texts

Question 30

How does the media act like a hypodermic syringe?

Answer 30

It injects media texts into media audiences (no active role in choosing to reject it)

Question 31

What do media messages fill audiences with according to the hypodermic syringe model?

Answer 31

Media messages fill audiences with the dominant ideology, sexist and racist images, scenes of violence or other content and the audience immediately acts on the messages

Question 32

What does the hypodermic syringe model assume the audience is?

Answer 32

Homogenous (all have the same characteristics)

Question 33

Consequences of media consumption according to the hypodermic syringe model

Answer 33

Imitation of what audiences see in the media
Desensitisation

Question 34

How may the media cause desensitisation for children and teenagers according to the hypodermic syringe model?

Answer 34

Children and teenagers are subjected to thousands of acts of violence through exposure to the media and this may make them desensitised to violence over time

Question 35

Opposite of imitation (evaluation of hypodermic syringe model)

Answer 35

Catharsis
Studies show that screen violence can provide an outlet for people’s violent tendencies

Question 36

Opposite of sensitisation (evaluation of hypodermic syringe model)

Answer 36

Sensitisation
Viewers may be more sympathetic towards victims suffering when they know they are watching real violence

Question 37

Key experiment into imitation of media content and the issues with it

Answer 37

Bandura’s bobo doll experiment
Crticised for taking place in a laboratory, making it lack ecological validity

Question 38

Key criticism of the hypodermic syringe model

Answer 38

Assumes the entire audience is passive and homogenous and will react in the same way to media content

Question 39

Violence and the new media

Answer 39

The new media mean violent imagery can be found everywhere, people can access it whenever they want and it is almost impossible to control
Digital technology also means media violence is interactive (video games)

Question 40

Competing claims about the effects of media violence: copycatting or imitation

Answer 40

Imitation: exposure to media violence causes children to copy what they see and behave more aggressively in the real world (based on Bandura’s experiment)
Catharsis: media violence reduces violence as it allows people to live out their tendencies away from the real world

Question 41

Competing claims about the effects of media violence: desensitisation

Answer 41

Desensitisation: repeated exposure of children to media violence socialises audiences into accepting it and seeing it as a legitimate way of solving problems
Sensitisation: exposure to violence in the media can make people more sensitive to the consequences of violence and less tolerant of real-life violence

Question 42

Competing claims about the effects of media violence: psychological disturbance

Answer 42

Psychological disturbance: watching media violence frightens young children, causing nightmares, anxiety etc
Exaggeration of fear of violence: is there actually a increase in these problems as a result of media violence?

Question 43

Problems with research into the effects of media violence

Answer 43

Very unethical to deliberately expose people to violent imagery
Operationalising violence is problematic
Doesn’t look at how people interpret what they see, the context within which they view the violence or the wider range of influences on the person’s behaviour
Hard to avoid Hawthorne Effect
Lab experiments can only measure immediate effects of media violence - doesn’t mean the effects are long lasting