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psychology > 7. research methods > Flashcards

7. research methods Flashcards

1
Q

self report techniques

A

the participant reveals personal information about themselves in response to a series of questions

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2
Q

interview

A

participants give information in response to direct questioning from the researcher

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3
Q

questionnaire

A

participants give information in response to a set of questions that are sent to them

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4
Q

open questions

A

the question is phrased in a way that allows the participants to answer in any way they choose. this produces qualitative data

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5
Q

open questions AO3

A

― strength: As the participants have the freedom to choose their responses, this can be argued to lead to more valid responses

― limitation: Qualitative data makes data analysis between large numbers of participant responses much more difficult, making it harder to spot patterns in responses

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6
Q

closed questions

A

the question is phrased in a way that limits participants’ responses to only a few fixed options. this produces quantitative data

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7
Q

closed questions AO3

A

― strength: Quantitative data allows easy data analysis between large numbers of participant responses, making it easier to spot patterns in the data set

― limitation: As the participant’s responses are limited to a fixed set, this can be argued to be less valid as responses may just be the best fit, not how they really feel

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8
Q

avoiding complex terminology

A

participants may not understand the terms used. if feeling too embarrassed to ask for an explanation, or unable to answer some questions, they may guess the meaning which results in inaccurate responses

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9
Q

rewording question

A

using a skilled interviewer means questions that participants don’t understand can be reworded, this should be in a way that doesn’t change the question’s meaning so responses can be compared to other participants

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10
Q

leading questions

A

these bias the responses in one direction. to avoid this, questions should be written in a way that doesn’t suggest a ‘correct way’ of responding

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11
Q

piloting questions

A

running a small scale version of the interview or questionnaire can identify things that are confusing, give away the aim, or don’t produce a useful/detailed enough response. these can then be changed before the larger-scale study

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12
Q

filler questions

A

questions that are not linked to the research aim, but can be added to interviews to put the participant at ease and build rapport before more challenging questions. or can be added to interviews or questionnaires to act as red herrings and help hide the research aim, reducing demand characteristics

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13
Q

structured interview

A

the interviewer reads out a list of prepared questions as they are written

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14
Q

structured interviews strengths (AO3)

A

― the interviewer does not have to be highly trained to conduct the interview

― the interview responses are easy to compare because of the same questions used

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15
Q

structured interviews limitations (AO3)

A

― responses by the participants can’t be followed up with additional questions that can provide more detail

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16
Q

unstructured interview

A

no set list of questions, an open conversation about a topic

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17
Q

unstructured interview strengths (AO3)

A

― rapport is more likely, the participant feeling more comfortable to answer

― interesting responses can be followed up with additional questions

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18
Q

unstructured interview limitations (AO3)

A

― highly trained interviewer to think up appropriate questions in the moment

― every interview will be very different, making comparisons difficult

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19
Q

semi-structured interview

A

combination of prepared questions with ability to ask additional questions

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20
Q

semi-structured interview strengths (AO3)

A

― the interview responses are easy to compare because of the same questions used

― interviewer can ask follow up questions in response to interesting answers

― rapport is more likely, the participant feeling more comfortable to answer

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21
Q

semi-structured interview limitations (AO3)

A

need a highly trained interviewer to think up appropriate questions in the moment

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22
Q

self report techniques strengths (AO3)

A

― when the same set of questions are used they are very easy to replicate

― the use of closed questions allows data analysis; and the use of open questions gives the participant the opportunity to freely report their experience

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23
Q

self report techniques limitations (AO3)

A

― suffer from bias, such as social desirability bias: participants responding in a way that makes them look good in front of the researcher

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24
Q

other examples of bias in self-report techniques

A

― demand characteristics: often easy for the participant to work out the aim from the questions, which results in the participant answering in a way they think the researcher wants

― researcher bias: the researcher interpreting responses to open questions in a way that confirms their research hypothesis/their beliefs

― investigator effects: the personal characteristics of the interviewer, or the body language used by the interviewer, influencing the responses given by a participant

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25
Q

questionnaire strengths (AO3)

A

― don’t require a trained interviewer and can be distributed easily, making collecting a large amount of data a cheap and easy process

― when using closed questions, researchers can compare many thousands of responses easily

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26
Q

questionnaire limitations (AO3)

A

― questions the participants don’t understand cannot be rephrased

― questionnaires are often not taken seriously, this can result in acquiesce bias (the participant responding yes to every question)

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27
Q

interviews strengths (AO3)

A

― can rephrase questions that are difficult to understand

― can build rapport making it more likely the participant will take the interview seriously

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28
Q

interview limitations (AO3)

A

― requires an interviewer, this significantly increases the cost per participant especially if the interviewer needs to be trained

― interviewer effects, the personal characteristics of the interviewer can alter the response of the participants

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29
Q

repeated measures design

A

― the same participants complete two or more experimental conditions

― produces related data, each participant’s score in one condition can be paired with a data point in the other condition

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30
Q

repeated measures strengths (AO3)

A

― needs half the participants compared to independent groups design for the same amount of data

― participant variables between the conditions is not a problem as the participants take part in both conditions

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31
Q

repeated measures limitations (AO3)

demand characteristics & order effects

A

― participants are more likely to work out the aim than in independent group design as they take part in both conditions, meaning increased demand characteristics

― order effects: participant peformance can improve or worsen between the conditions due to factors like practice or fatigue

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32
Q

independent groups design

A

― different participants complete two or more conditions of the experiment
― participants are randomly allocated to each condition (to avoid researcher bias)

― produces unrelated data, the individual data points in any one condition cannot be paired with any of the data points in the other condition

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33
Q

independent group design strengths (AO3)

A

― participants are less likely to work out the aim than repeated measures design as they only take part in one condition, meaning reduced demand characteristics

― no order effects as participants only take part in one condition

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34
Q

independent group design limitations (AO3)

A

― independent groups design needs double the participants compared to repeated measures for the same amount of data.

― participant variables between the conditions is a problem as the participants take part in only one condition

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35
Q

matched pairs design

A

― different participants complete in each of the two or more conditions of the experiment.
― participants are first assessed and ranked on a characteristic and then the top two participants, then each following two, are randomly assigned to separate conditions

― produces related data, each participant’s score in one condition can be paired with a data point in the other condition

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36
Q

matched pairs strengths (AO3)

A

― reduced participant variables as participants are matched on a relevant characteristic

― no order effects as participants only take part in one condition

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37
Q

matched pairs limitations (AO3)

A

― matched pairs design takes longer to set up than other experimental designs

― matched pairs design needs twice as many participants as a repeated measures design

― participants are similar but not identical so there may still be some participant variables between conditions that influence the dependent variable

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38
Q

laboratory experiments

A

the experimenter controls environmental factors (e.g. noise and temperature) as well as the experience each participant has by using standardised procedures

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39
Q

laboratory experiments strengths (AO3)

high internal validity & replication

A

― Lab experiments have high control over confounding and extraneous variables. This means the researcher can ensure that any effect on the dependent variable is likely the result of manipulation of the independent variable. Thus we can be more certain about demonstrating cause and effect due to a high internal validity

― Replication is more possible than in other types of experiment because of the high level of control. Lab experiments ensure that new extraneous variables are not introduced when repeating an experiment. Replication is vital to check the results of any study to see whether the finding is valid and not just a one-off.

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40
Q

laboratory experiments limitations - generalisability & demand characteristics (AO3)

A

― Lab experiments may lack generalisability. The lab environment may be rather artificial and not like everyday life. In an unfamiliar context, participants may behave in unusual ways, therefore behaviour cannot always be generalised beyond the research setting (low external validity)

― Participants are usually aware they are being tested in a lab experiment, which may give rise to ‘unnatural behaviour’ (demand characteristics) as tasks may not represent every day experience (low mundane realism)

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41
Q

field experiments

A

defined by conducting the experiment in naturalistic settings. This change in location is an attempt to avoid the artificial nature of lab studies

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42
Q

field experiments strengths (AO3)

higher mundane realism

A

― Field experiments have higher mundane realism than lab experiments because the environment is more natural. Thus, field experiments may produce behaviour that is more valid and authentic, especially as participants may be unaware they are being studied (high external validity)

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43
Q

field experiments limitations (AO3)

increased realism > replication & ethical issues

A

― There is a price to pay for increased realism due to the loss of control of confounding variables. This means cause and effect between the IV and the DV in field studies may be much more difficult to establish and precise replication is often not possible

― There are also important ethical issues. If participants are unaware they are being studied, they cannot consent to being studied. Therefore, such research might constitute as an invasion of privacy

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44
Q

natural experiments

A

the two levels of independent variables occur in the real world without the influence of the researcher. the researcher simply records the change in the dependent variable between the two levels of independent variable

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45
Q

natural experiments strengths (AO3)

A

― natural experiments provide opportunities for research that may not otherwise be undertaken for practical or ethical reasons

― Natural experiments often have high external validity because they involve the study of real-world issues and problems as they happen, such as the effects of a natural disaster on stress levels

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46
Q

natural experiment limitations (AO3)

randomisation in experimental conditions & demand characteristics

A

― Participants may not be randomly allocated to experimental conditions. This means the researcher might be less sure whether the IV affected the DV. In the study of Romanian orphans, the IV was whether children were adopted early or late. Lots of other differences, such as those who were adopted late may also have been less sociable than some of the other children, which may have made them less appealing for prospective parents

― Such research may be conducted in a lab and therefore may lack realism and demand characteristics may be an issue

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47
Q

quasi experiment

A

participants cannot be randomly assigned between levels of IV, often because the level of IV is an innate characteristic of the participant

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48
Q

quasi experiment strengths (AO3)

A

― Quasi experiments are the only way to experimentally study factors that are pre-existing characteristics of participants

― Quasi experiments also share some strengths of a lab replication

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49
Q

quasi experiments limitations (AO3)

A

― Participants cannot be randomly allocated to conditions and therefore there may be confounding variables

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50
Q

target population

A

― every member of the group that the investigator plans to study
― researchers conduct their experiments on a smaller sample of participants, taken from the target population. the results of that sample are assumed to apply to all members of the target population (called generalisation)
― whether the results can be generalised or not depends on how representative the sample is of the target population, meaning the sample used in the study shares characteristics with the members of the target population

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51
Q

random sampling definition and how to conduct

A

each member of the target population has a mathematically equal chance of being in the experiment’s sample
― the researcher needs a full list of the entire population, and all names are entered into a container
― a number of names equal to the sample is pulled from the container

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52
Q

random sampling strengths (AO3)

A

― a random sample avoids researcher bias as the researcher cannot choose the participants they want to form the sample, avoiding the possibility the researcher picks participants they feel are likely to give a preferred result

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53
Q

random sampling limitations (AO3)

A

― by chance participants could be picked that produces an unrepresentative sample. for example, too few members of one gender or with no members of a minority group

― it can be difficult and time-consuming to get a full list of a large target population

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54
Q

systematic sample definition and how to conduct

A

participants are chosen from a list of the target population. every Nth participant is chosen to form the sample
― the researcher needs a full list of the entire target population
― the researcher reads down the list selecting every Nth participant to form the sample
― the process continues until the sample required is chosen

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55
Q

systematic sampling strengths (AO3)

A

― avoids researcher bias as the researcher cannot choose the participants they want in their sample

― if there is an existing list of the target population, it can be a quick method of selecting a sample

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56
Q

systematic sampling limitations (AO3)

A

― by chance this method could result in an unrepresentative sample (too few members of one gender or with no members of a minority group)

― if the target population is very large, getting a full list could be difficult

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57
Q

opportunity sample definition and how to conduct

A

the researcher directly asks available members of the target population to take part in the research. this is likely to be individuals the researcher has easy access to and is familiar with
― researcher directly asks any members from within the target population to take part in the research
― any individuals who agree to take part are added to the sample until the number of participants required is met

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58
Q

opportunity sample strengths (AO3)

A

― this is the fastest way to get a sample for psychological research, reducing the time it takes to conduct research and likely reducing the cost involved compared to more complex sampling methods

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59
Q

opportunity sample limitations (AO3)

A

― as the researcher decides who to ask, and more importantly who not to ask, this could result in researcher bias, meaning the researcher may select participants they feel are likely to produce a preferred result

― opportunity samples are unlikely to be representative, as the participants chosen are the type of people the researcher has easy access to. for research conducted in universities, this is likely to be young undergraduate students

60
Q

volunteer sampling

A

participants offer to take part after finding out about the research. this is likely after seeing an advert in a newspaper or online
― advertisements are placed where they are likely to be seen by members of the target population
― the advert will include contact details and the researcher will enrol the volunteer into the sample when they are contacted by the volunteer

61
Q

volunteer sampling strengths (AO3)

A

― advertising for participants can reach a very large number of potential participants, especially if the newspaper or website is widely read

― an easy sample to collect as participants are putting themselves forward rather than having to be found individually and contacted directly

62
Q

volunteer sampling limitations (AO3)

A

― the sample may not be generalisable to the target population because of volunteer bias, the types of people who volunteer to take part are likely to have different characteristics to the target population, they are likely to be friendlier and have more free time available

63
Q

stratified sampling

A

by selecting from within strata, the characteristics of participants within the sample are in the same proportion as found within the target population
― strata are identified along with their proportion in the target population
― random sampling is then used to select the number of participants required from within each stratum

64
Q

stratified sampling strengths (AO3)

A

― the sample is representative of the larger target population, meaning the results found with the sample should be generalisable to the target population

― as the participants are randomly chosen from within each stratum, this avoids researcher bias

65
Q

stratified sampling limitations (AO3)

A

― not every possible characteristic can be included in a stratified sample, and as the researcher decides which strata are important, this may result in bias

― time-consuming to establish strata and then randomly select from each stratum

66
Q

W.E.I.R.D

A

― Western: born in the USA, UK, or western Europe
― Educated: experience an extended period of formal education
― Industrialised: live in highly developed environments
― Rich: income levels far higher than the world average
― Democratic: choose leads collectively via voting

Henrich et al found that 96% of subjects in psychology studies were WEIRD participants, despite this only representing 12% of the world population. this raises serious questions about the generalisability of much of psychological research

67
Q

peer review

A

an author’s scientific paper is assessed by people who are experts in the same scientific area as the author (peers)

68
Q

stages of peer review

A

― stage 1: submit a paper to an academic journal, the journal then sends this paper to independent experts
― stage 2: peers consider the quality of the paper including research design and the method used, considering uncontrolled extraneous variables, and the data analysis
― stage 3: peers decide if they can recommend the paper for publication (if rejected, changes are suggested; or may be flawed with no possibility of resubmitting)
― stage 4: the journal editor makes the final decision on if the paper will be published

69
Q

peer review strengths (AO3)

A

― the scientist’s knowledge that their work will be checked and assessed by fellow experts is thought to self-regulate the quality of their work, the scientist is more likely to be honest in their reporting and more careful in their planning, how they conduct their study, how they analyse their data, and justify their conclusions

― the media often reports scientific findings, the peer review system aids in science communication, helping journalists and the public decide if scientific claims should be trusted or not. this is important as acceptance of scientific findings that turn out to be flawed can reduce public trust in the scientific process

― the quality and amount of published peer-reviewed work can help to assess the quality of different academic institutions. This is by giving each institution a research rating. Universities and research labs with a history of producing peer reviewed articles are likely to be favoured by students and gain government funding for future research

70
Q

single blind peer review

A

the author does not know who the peers are

71
Q

double blind peer review

A

the author does not know who the peers are and the peers do not know who the author is

72
Q

peer review limitations (AO3)

A

― journals may struggle to find suitable peers (with enough knowledge) in new or very specialised areas of scientific research with few experts

― peers may feel unable to challenge the work of academic leaders in a scientific field. either assuming the author must be correct, or fearing a negative response

― blinding is problematic; authors can be identified by writing style, and anonymous reviewers can be more likely to steal ideas and be unnecessarily harsh

― publication bias towards publishing positive findings result in the file draw problem, important negative findings never being published for the scientist (or other scientists) to find

73
Q

correlation

A

a mathematical technique investigating an association/relationship between two or more co-variables

74
Q

co-variables

A

the two factors/variables that are measured/collected by the researcher and then compared to each other

75
Q

scattergram

A

a graph used to plot the measurements of two co-variables. scattergrams visually display the relationship between co-variables

76
Q

positive correlation

A

as one co-variable increases, the other co-variable increases

77
Q

negative correlation

A

as one co-variable increases, the other co-variable decreases

78
Q

correlation coefficient

A

represents both the strength and direction of the co-variables as a number between -1 (perfect negative) and +1 (perfect positive)

79
Q

correlation strengths (AO3)

A

― correlational studies can highlight potential casual relationships, these can then be tested with experimental methods to discover cause and effect relationships

― often the co-variable data already exists and is easily accessible, this means there is usually few ethical problems in data collection

― correlation coefficient is a useful tool in describing both the direction and strength of relationships between factors

80
Q

correlation limitations (AO3)

A

― correlation does not show causation. while a strong correlation may suggest relationship exists between two variables, it does not show which co-variable led to the change in the other co-variable and there is the possibility than an unknown third variable caused the change in both co-variables

81
Q

quantitative data

A

data in the form of numbers (quantity); these statistics can be displayed on tables and graphs

82
Q

qualitative data

A

data in the form of words; these words are descriptions of behaviour, thoughts and feelings.

83
Q

when to use quantitative and qualitative data

A

quantitative data is used in experimental and observational research. qualitative data is used in case studies, open-question interviews, and questionnaires

84
Q

quantitative data strengths (AO3)

A

― objectively measured, reducing the likelihood of bias. this increases scientific credibility

― descriptive statistics allow quantitative data to be summarised and then displayed on graphs, charts, and tables

― quantitative data tends to be more reliable. because of the limited number of responses, there is a higher chance of getting the same findings if the study is repeated

85
Q

quantitative data limitations (AO3)

A

― the limited number of qualitative research responses results in data lacking depth and detail. also, qualitative data collection can only focus on individual behaviours and what can be measured mathematically

86
Q

qualitative data strengths (AO3)

A

― qualitative data is seen as rich in detail; this is because qualitative researchers often collect more information, and the use of open-ended questions means participants are not limited in the responses they can give, meaning qualitative data has higher validity

87
Q

qualitative data limitations (AO3)

A

― qualitative data gathered by the researcher can be open to interpretation and potentially biased

― due to the extensive range of data collected, it can be challenging to summarise

― as the questions that produce qualitative data are open-ended, this tends to be more variable, reducing the reliability of qualitative research

88
Q

primary data

A

the researcher is responsible for generating the data, also known as ‘first hand’ or ‘original’ data. it is created to answer the reserach question

89
Q

secondary data

A

when researchers use information previously collected by a third party, such as another researcher or organisation. the secondary data was initially collected for a reason other than to answer the current research question

90
Q

primary data strengths (AO3)

A

― increased validity as the data is collected to answer the research question directly. the experiment or observation is designed to test the intended variable directly
― increased validity as the researcher can control the data collection process carefully

91
Q

primary data limitations (AO3)

A

― collecting original data from participants is both time-consuming for the researcher and potentially expensive. costs include paying participants for their time and other researchers for their work. setting up an experiment also includes paying for materials

92
Q

secondary data strengths (AO3)

A

― secondary data already exists and is often already analysed; this can dramatically reduce both the time needed to conduct research and the costs involved in conducting a study involving participants

93
Q

secondary data limitations (AO3)

A

― decreased validity as the data is not collected to answer the research question directly. the data may not be appropriate to answer the researcher’s research question.

― decreased validity as the researcher had no role in the data collection, so cannot ensure that the data was collected free from bias or is the result of variables

94
Q

meta-analysis

A

― a process that collects and combines the results of a range of previously published studies asking similar research questions
― the data collected is compared and reviewed together, and part of this review can include statistically combining all the data to produce an overall effect size and conclusion

95
Q

meta-analysis strengths (AO3)

A

― the large sample size of the meta-analysis produces results that are more statistically powerful than studies with a small number of participants

― as meta-analysis looks at the overall pattern of results across many studies, a small number of individual studies that are affected by bias or a lack of control will not change the overall pattern of results, making meta-analysis more trustworthy than any individual study

― studies testing the same variable in various contexts (such as across cultures) can be compared, revealing unexpected relationships

96
Q

meta-analysis limitations (AO3)

A

― a meta-analysis has all the weaknesses of secondary data; the researcher has no control over the quality of the data collected. also, included studies are conducted to answer particular research questions, so may not be comparable

― studies show that a statistically significant result are more likely to be published (so included in a meta-analysis), while non-significant results are unlikely to be submitted for publication (the file draw problem)

― the choice of which studies to include/exclude could be biased

97
Q

measure of central tendency

A

a single value that summarises a set of data by identifying the typical value of the data set, also known as an average

98
Q

mode

A

the most frequent score in a quantitative data set. if there are two modes, the data is bi-modal, and if there are more than two modes, the data set is multimodal

99
Q

mode strengths (AO3)

A

― the mode is not distorted by extreme scores called outliers

― the mode is helpful for discrete (decimal) numbers

― giving the modal group is the only way of giving the average of data in categories

100
Q

mode limitations (AO3)

A

― there can be no modes if every value is different or multiple models

― the mode does not include all of the values in its calculation, so it is not as sensitive as the mean measure of central tendency

101
Q

mean

A

the mathematical average, calculated by adding all the values and then dividing by the number of values

102
Q

mean evaluations

A

― strengths: all raw data are used in calculating the mean. this means the mean is the most sensitive measure of central tendency

― limitations: due to the sensitivity of the mean, the mean can be distorted by extremely high or low values (outliers)

103
Q

range

A

the range is the difference between a data set’s highest and lowest values

104
Q

range evaluations

A

― strengths: the range is easy to calculate, especially compared to the alternative measure of dispersion, the standard deviation

― limitations:
— extreme scores easily distort the value
— the range does not show if the scores are clustered around the mean or more evenly spread out

105
Q

standard deviation

A

a complex calculation using all data points that produces a single value. the smaller the standard deviation, the more clustered the values are around the mean

106
Q

standard deviation strengths (AO3)

A

― the SD includes all values in its calculation, making it more sensitive than the range

― the SD provides information about the spread of scores

107
Q

standard deviation limitations (AO3)

A

― extreme scores also distort the SD
― the SD is significantly more difficult to calculate than the range

108
Q

content analysis

A

an indirect observational method that is used to analyse human behaviour, investigating through studying human artefacts
― often qualitative data or transcripts, which are transformed into quantitative data

109
Q

content analysis process

A

― decide a research question
― select a sample from a larger quantity of all possible data
― coding: the researcher decides on categories/coding units to be recorded, these are based on the research question
― read the sample, and tally the number of times the pre-determined categories appear
― data analysis can be performed on the quantitative data to look for patterns

the coding units/categories should be operationalised, meaning they are as clearly defined as possible to try to reduce subjective interpretation

110
Q

test-retest reliability

A

run the content analysis again on the same sample and compare the two sets of data

111
Q

inter-rater reliability

A

a second rater also performs the content analysis, with the same set of data and the same behavioural categories. compare the two sets of data

112
Q

content analysis strengths (AO3)

A

― the ‘artefacts’ are not usually created for research but are taken from the real world. this means content analysis has high external validity, and findings should be generalisable to other real-world situations

― as the artefacts come from the real world, it is often easy to gather a sample

― other researchers should be able to replicate a content analysis using the same coding units/behavioural categories and an easy to access sample

113
Q

content analysis limitations (AO3)

A

― as the researcher will often need to interpret subjective text, this may lead to researcher/observer bias, when researchers tend to interpret the text in a way that supports their pre-existing views

― the data is created for purposes other than the research. as the data was not created under controlled conditions, it may lack validity. for example, written historical records such as diaries may not contain an accurate record of the past but contain inaccuracies, and not all diaries have an equal chance of surviving into the present to be selected in a sample

114
Q

thematic analysis

A

researchers start by attempting to identify the deeper meaning of the text by reading it first, and allowing themes to emerge

115
Q

thematic analysis process

A

― collect text/turn recordings into text through transcription
― read text/transcripts first to spot patterns that can be coded and collected
― re-read the transcriptions/codes looking for emergent themes

116
Q

thematic analysis strengths (AO3)

A

― as theories come after the discovery of themes, it can be argued thematic analysis stops the researcher imposing their own bias on the analysis by only looking for what they want to see

― high external validity
― easy to get a sample
― easy to replicate

117
Q

thematic analysis limitations (AO3)

A

― subjective interpretation
― data not created in controlled conditions

118
Q

ethics/ethical guidelines

A

psychologists are expected to design and conduct research that follows a set of guidelines published by the BPS in the UK and APA in the USA

— scientific integrity
— respect for the autonomy
— social responsibility
— minimising harm

119
Q

informed consent

A

— consent is not valid if participants are not informed of what they are agreeing to
— participants should be made aware of the aims and consequences of taking part in research
— consent may be gained from a parent or guardian if the participant is unable to give informed consent themselves

120
Q

right to withdraw

A

— participants should be told they can withdraw from the study at any stage with no adverse consequences
— this includes withdrawing data collected from them

121
Q

protection from harm

A

— the researcher is responsible for designing research that does not risk the psychological well-being, physical health, personal values, and dignity of the participants

122
Q

confidentiality

A

participants’ personal data should be kept securely by the researcher, not shared. when the research is published, it should not include the identity of participants or information that could reveal the identity of participants

123
Q

debriefing

A

after the data collection is completed, the researcher should offer a debriefing. this would reveal any information withheld, such as the existence of other groups. the researcher can also check for any psychological or physical harm and offer assistance

124
Q

prior general consent

A

participants agree to a long list of potential features of a research study, not knowing which aspects will be part of the study they are in

125
Q

retroactive consent

A

the researcher asks for consent after the participant has taken part in the study, if the participant does not agree to take part, their data is destroyed

126
Q

presumptive content

A

the researcher asks a group similar to the sample if they would agree to take part in the research. if the group agrees, the researcher assumes that the participants would also agree

127
Q

ethical issues limitations (AO3)

A

the true value of a study to society isn’t known for many years after a study has been published this means it can be difficult to accurately conduct a cost-benefit analysis

128
Q

observation

A

a non-experimental technique, the researcher watches and records spontaneous/natural behaviour of participants without manipulating levels of IV

129
Q

controlled observation

A

aspects of the environment are controlled in an attempt to give participants the same experience. this is often conducted in a laboratory setting

130
Q

controlled observation (AO3)

A

— strengths:
- controlling the environment and giving the same experience reduces the likelihood that extraneous variables are using the same standardised procedures
- results are likely to be reliable as using the same standardised procedures

— *limitations:** the artificiality of the observational environment ma result in unnatural behaviour, not like behaviour shown in real-world situations

131
Q

naturalistic observation

A

takes place in the ‘real world’ places the participants are likely to spend their time such as school, work, or in their home

132
Q

naturalistic observation (AO3)

A

— **strengths:*
- high realism, participants are likely to show more naturalistic behaviour
- external validity, behaviour is more likely to be generalisable to other situations

— limitations: uncontrolled extraneous variables may be responsible for the behaviour observed resulting in lower internal validity

133
Q

overt observation

A

the participants can see the researcher, are aware their behaviour is being observed as part of an observational study

134
Q

overt observation (AO3)

A

— strengths: ethical as the principal of informed consent means participants should agree to take part in research and they should know what they’re signing up for

— limitations: demand characteristics are likely, if the participants know they are being observed they may try to show behaviour that they think the researcher wants to see. or social desirability bias may be a factor, acting to ‘look good’

135
Q

covert observation

A

the participants are unaware they are being observe ad they can’t see someone taking notes/recordings

136
Q

covert observation (AO3)

A

as participants are aware they are being observed they are far more likely to show naturalistic behaviour free from demand characteristics or social desirability bias

137
Q

participant observation

A

the researcher joins the group being observed and takes part in the group’s activities and conversations

138
Q

participant observation (AO3)

A

— strengths: by taking part, the researcher may build rapport; more trust and comfort could lead to the participants behaving more naturally and disclosing more

— limitations: researchers can lose objectivity, interpretation of behaviour is biased, seeing only from the participants perspective. sometimes temed ‘going native’

139
Q

non participant observation

A

the researcher is separate from the participants and recording observations without taking part in the group’s activities

140
Q

non participant observation (AO3)

A

— strength: the researcher is more likely to remain objective in their interpretation of the participant’s behaviour

— limitations: due to lack of trust/rapport with the participants, the researcher misses out on important insights/participants don’t behave naturally

141
Q

operationalised behavioural categories

A

behaviours that need to be clearly identifiable and measurable (e.g. aggression = number of pushes, punches and kicks)

142
Q

time sampling

A

the researcher records all relevant behaviour at set points (e.g. everything for 15 seconds, every 10 minutes over a 1-hour observation)

143
Q

time sampling (AO3)

A

— strength: more flexibility to be able to record unexpected types of behaviour

— limitation: can miss behaviour that happens outside of the recording periods

144
Q

event sampling

A

researcher records/tallies every time a behaviour occurs from the list of operationalised behavioural categories

145
Q

event sampling (AO3)

A

— strength: as long as the behaviour has been included in the list of behavioural categories, it should be recorded if it happens at any stage of the observation

— limitation: may miss relevant behaviour that isn’t on the list of behavioural categories

146
Q

assessing reliability

A

even with clear behavioural categories, interpreting observed behaviour can be affected by bias, researchers should assess the reliability of their own observation by seeing if it is consistent with another researcher’s observation

147
Q

inter-observer/reliability process

A

two or more trained observers conduct the same observation
— agree and use the same checklist/tally of operationalised categories
— observation is conducted separately by each observer
— compare the two independently produced data sets. a test of correlation can assess the strength of the relationship between two data sets. a correlation of 0.8 or stronger is generally accepted

psychology (5 decks)

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