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Psychology > 7. Research Methods > Flashcards

7. Research Methods Flashcards

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1
Q

What are dependent variables?

A

The variable whose changes we wish to study in the investigation.

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2
Q

What are independent variables?

A

The variable that the researcher manipulates.

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3
Q

What are operationalising variables?

A

Refers to how you define and measure a specific variable as it is used in your study.

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4
Q

What is an experimental hypothesis?

A

A prediction of what will happen (“There WILL be a difference between…”)

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5
Q

What is a null hypothesis?

A

A prediction that nothing will happen (“There will be NO difference between…”)

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6
Q

What is a one-tailed hypothesis?

A

When hypotheses predict the direction of the results.

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7
Q

What is a two-tailed hypothesis?

A

When a hypothesis does not state a direction but simply state that there will be a difference between to results.

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8
Q

What are extraneous variables?

A

Variables which may affect the results.

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9
Q

What are confounding variables?

A

When we fail to control extraneous variable and they affect our results - these variables are now confounding.

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10
Q

What is the independent groups design?

A

Different people in each condition.

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11
Q

What is the repeated measures design?

A

The same people in both conditions.

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12
Q

What is the matched pairs design?

A

Different BUT SIMILAR participants in each condition.

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13
Q

What are the types of sampling?

A
  1. Random
  2. Systematic
  3. Stratified
  4. Opportunity
  5. Volunteer
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14
Q

Strengths and weaknesses of random sampling?

A

S: Is free from researcher bias.
W: Time consuming, difficult to conduct, no guarantee of representation.

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15
Q

Strengths and weaknesses of systematic sampling?

A

S: Is free from researcher bias.
W: Time consuming, difficult to conduct, no guarantee of representation.

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16
Q

Strengths and weaknesses of stratified sampling?

A

S: Avoids researcher bias, designed to be representative of the population.
W: Stratification is not perfect - we need to be cautious about generalising.

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17
Q

Strengths and weaknesses of opportunity sampling?

A

S: It is quick and easy way of choosing participants.
W: There is researcher bias, unrepresentative of the target population.

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18
Q

Strengths and weaknesses of volunteer sampling?

A

S: It is easy and requires minimal input - less time consuming.
W: Volunteer bias.

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19
Q

What are the types of experiment?

A
  • Laboratory
  • Field
  • Natural
  • Quasi
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20
Q

What is a laboratory experiment?

A

Conducted in controlled conditions, in which the researcher deliberately changes something to see the effect of this on something else.

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21
Q

What are the strengths and weaknesses of laboratory experiments?

A

S: High control meaning there is high internal validity, replicable meaning we can increase reliability.
W: Lacks ecological validity.

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22
Q

What is a field experiment?

A

An experiment that takes place in a ‘real world’ setting but the psychologist still manipulated the IV.

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23
Q

What are the strengths and weaknesses of field experiments?

A

S: Reasonable internal and external validity.
W: Less control so slightly lower internal validity.

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24
Q

What is a natural experiment?

A

An experiment that is conducted in a natural setting, but the IV is not manipulated by the experimenter.

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25
Q

What are the strengths and weaknesses of natural experiments?

A

S: High ecological and external validity.
W: Lack of control meaning there is low internal validity, not replicable meaning there is lower reliability.

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26
Q

What is a quasi experiment?

A

An experiment that lacks full control over the IV, because they are pre-existing or naturally occurring. Used when it is not ethical to manipulate the IV.

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27
Q

What are the strengths and weaknesses of quasi experiments?

A

S: Used when ethics are difficult, increased ecological validity.
W: Less reliable because of confounding environmental variables, must wait for the IV to occur, lower internal validity.

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28
Q

What ethics issues do experimenters face in psychology?

A
  • Deception
  • Informed consent
  • Protection of participants
  • Right to withdraw
  • Confidentiality
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29
Q

Deception

A

When participants are misled during an experiment. Sometimes, it can be justified to yield accurate results and lower demand characteristics.

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30
Q

Informed consent

A

Participants must be briefed on objective of the experiment and what will be required of them. For an experiment to be ethical the participant must agree to the terms without be pressured to do so.

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31
Q

Protection of participants

A

Ensuring that the participants do not suffer with any physical or mental damage because of the experiment.

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32
Q

Right to withdraw

A

Participants must be informed that they can leave the experiment and are allowed to do so without giving explanation.

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33
Q

Confidentiality

A

The concept that participants should remain anonymous so data cannot be identified as theirs.

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34
Q

Types of observation?

A
  • Laboratory / Natural
  • Overt / Covert
  • Participant / Non-participant
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35
Q

Strengths and weaknesses of laboratory observations?

A

S: Can be replicated, we can check reliability, effective for studying a controlled variable.
W: Low ecological validity, not effective for studying behaviour.

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36
Q

Strengths and weaknesses of natural observations?

A

S: High ecological validity, effective for studying behaviour.
W: Cannot be replicated to check reliability.

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37
Q

Strengths and weaknesses of overt observations?

A

S: Possible to gain informed consent - no ethical issues.
W: Demand characteristics, social desirability.

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38
Q

Strengths and weaknesses of covert observations?

A

S: Investigator effects are unlikely, lower chance of demand characteristics.
W: Less ethical

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39
Q

Strengths and weaknesses of participant observations?

A

S: In-depth data can be obtains, low chance of demand characteristics.
W: Researcher presence may influence participants, may be investigator effects.

40
Q

Strengths and weaknesses of non-participant observations?

A

S: No investigator effects.
W: May be researcher bias, less accurate data obtained.

41
Q

What are key features of questionnaires?

A

→ Set of written question - designed to collect information.
→ Can discover what people think or feel.
→ Always pre-determined.
→ Can provide either qualitative or quantitative data.

42
Q

Types of interviews?

A
  • Structured interviews
  • Unstructured interviews
  • Semi-structured interviews
43
Q

Key features of interview types?

A

→ Structured interviews - pre-determined questions; essentially a questionnaire delivered face to face or over the phone.
→ Unstructured interviews - The interviewer may begin with general aims and possibly a few pre-determined questions but subsequent questions develop on the basis of the answers that are given.
→ Semi-structured interviews - Initial open question, Secondary probe if participants do not provide detail, Specific prompt/reference to stimulus if purpose not achieved.

44
Q

What are case studies used for?

A

To provide a detailed analysis of an individual, establishment or real-life event/

45
Q

In what circumstances are case studies used?

A

When there is rare behaviour being investigated.

46
Q

Give 3 examples of case studies.

A
  1. Little Albert
  2. Little Hans
  3. Kitty Genovese
47
Q

Strengths of case studies?

A
  • Offers the opportunity to collect detailed information about a situation.
  • Unique insights can be overlooked in situations where the variables are manipulated.
  • They can be used where an experiment would not be ethical.
48
Q

Limitations of case studies?

A
  • Methodological issues: it is difficult to generalise the findings to the wider population as the results are so specific.
  • Low external validity.
  • The research’s subjectivity.
49
Q

What are the three types of correlation?

A
  1. Positive
  2. Negative
  3. Zero
50
Q

What is positive correlation?

A

As one variable increases the other variable increases.

51
Q

What is negative correlation?

A

As one variable increases the other variable decreases.

52
Q

What is zero correlation?

A

Occurs when a correlational study find no relationship between variables.

53
Q

Definition of correlation coefficient?

A

Used to measure the strength and nature (positive or negative) of the relationship between two co-variables.

54
Q

What do we use to visually represent correlation?

A

Scattergrams.

55
Q

Strengths of using correlations?

A
  • An ideal place to begin preliminary research.
  • They measure the strength of a variable relationship.
  • Can be use when a lab experiment would be deemed unethical.
  • Secondary data can be used in correlational studies which removes the concern over informed consent.
56
Q

Weaknesses of correlations?

A
  • It is not possible to establish a cause and effect relationships.
  • A researcher cannot conclude that one variable cause the other to increase/decrease as there could be other factors.
  • Only identifies linear relationships and not curvilinear.
57
Q

Quantitative data defintion?

A

Measures of values or counts and are expressed as numbers. data about numeric variables

58
Q

Qualitative date definition?

A

Non-numeric information.

59
Q

Strengths and weaknesses of qualitative data?

A

Strengths:
- Gives the experimenter rich detail.
- Non-reductionist.
- Flexible.
Weaknesses:
- More difficult to analyse.
- Lacks external validity.
- More subjective.

60
Q

Strengths and weaknesses of quantitative data?

A

Strengths:
- Simple to analyse.
- Greater external validity.
- More objective.
Weaknesses:
- Lacks detail.
- Reductionist.

61
Q

What is primary data?

A

Original data that has been collected by the researcher.

62
Q

What is secondary data?

A

Data that has been collected by someone other than the person conducting the research.

63
Q

Strengths and weaknesses of primary data?

A

Strengths:
- Can be specific to your aim.
- More reliable.
- Up to date data.
Weaknesses:
- Takes time to collect.
- Researchers may be subjective.
- Costly.

64
Q

Strengths and weaknesses of secondary data?

A

Strengths:
- Inexpensive
- Easily accessed
- Requires minimal time.
Weaknesses:
- Not specific to your aim.
- Little control over the quality of the data.

65
Q

What is meta analysis?

A

A process in which data from lots of studies that use the same techniques and research questions are combined.

66
Q

What is normal distribution?

A

A probability distribution that is symmetric about the mean, showing that data near the mean is more frequent in occurrence than data far from the mean.

67
Q

Features of normal distribution?

A
  • Perfectly symmetrical around the mean.
  • Mean, Median, and Mode are all equal.
  • Bell-Shaped Curve.
  • Empirical Rule: About 68% of the data falls within one standard deviation of the mean.
  • Asymptotic.
68
Q

What is skewed distribution?

A

A type of distribution in which the data is not symmetrically distributed around the mean.

69
Q

Types of skewed distribution?

A
  • Positive
  • Negative
70
Q

What is a peer review?

A

The process of assessing scientific work to decide whether it is worthy of publication in an academic journal.

71
Q

How is a peer review carried out?

A
  1. Manuscript is sent to experts in the same field.
  2. Peers review the quality of the work.
  3. Comments on the work are made.
  4. Author make corrections.
72
Q

Why do we conduct peer reviews on scientific research?

A
  • Ensuring research published is of good quality.
  • To allocate funding.
  • To guard against fraudulent research.
73
Q

Strengths of peer reviews?

A
  • Prevents substandard research from entering the mainstream; maintaining discipline.
  • Less opportunity for plagiarised work or duplications of published works.
  • Journals can be trusted.
74
Q

Weaknesses of peer reviews?

A
  • Peers are often anonymous meaning they might criticise rivals in their field.
  • Criticism may not be reflection of the work.
  • Difficult to find a suitable peer; this leads to positive publication bias.
75
Q

Economic implications of psychology?

A
  • Productivity of individuals.
  • Healthcare services.
  • Social change.
76
Q

How does productivity of individuals effect the economy?

A
  • When people work they contribute to the economy.
  • Less absenteeism means sick pay does not have to be given.
  • When individuals can manage their health there will be greater productivity.
77
Q

How does health care services have economic implications?

A
  • Providing effective treatments on the NHS is significant; training people for CBT is expensive.
  • If people are healthier more NHS resources are available for other health issues.
78
Q

Social change and economic implications?

A
  • Gender pay gap: a change to the idea of parental roles could help reduce the gap.
  • Changing laws to maternity/paternity leave have an economic impact as they are government funded.
79
Q

What are the components of a psychological research paper - in the order they appear?

A
  1. Abstract
  2. Introduction
  3. Methods
  4. Results
  5. Discussion
  6. Conclusions
80
Q

What is content analysis?

A

A research method used to interpret the content of various forms of communication (e.g. text, images, audio, video).

81
Q

How is content analysis used in psychological research?

A

To systematically analyse communication and uncover patterns - these might provide insight into psychological processes.

82
Q

How does content analysis differ from other methods of research?

A

Analyses existing materials (uses secondary data)

83
Q

What is a coding frame?

A

A structure used in content analysis to categorise data.

84
Q

What is test-retest reliability?

A

Same test, same group.

85
Q

What is inter-rater reliability?

A

Same test, different group.

86
Q

What are the 8 key features that make a subject scientific?

A
  1. Paradigm and paradigm shifts.
  2. Role of theory.
  3. Falsification.
  4. Role of hypothesis testing.
  5. Use of empirical methods.
  6. Replication.
  7. Generalisation.
  8. Role of peer review.
87
Q

What is a paradigm?

A

Brings together all the assumption that scientists within a area are prepared to accept:
1. What they are studying 
2. How they will think about it 
3. How they will study it 

88
Q

When do paradigm shifts occur?

A

Occurs when there is too much contradictory evidence to ignore. Many researchers would begin to question the accepted paradigm.
e.g. when we decided the world was round.

89
Q

What is a theory?

A

A theory explains observable behaviours and events, using a set of general principles.  It can also be used to predict observations. 

90
Q

What are the roles of theories?

A
  1. Theories give purpose and direction to research by organising facts and patterns into a set of general principles .
  2. Theories therefore generate testable hypotheses, which offer testable predictions of the facts organised by the theory.
91
Q

Who first suggested the idea of falsification?

A

Karl Popper suggested that psychologists should hold themselves up for hypothesis testing and the possibility of being proven false.  Even when a scientific principle has been successfully and repeatedly tested, it can still not necessarily be true.  

92
Q

What is the role of hypothesis testing?

A
  • Hypothesis testing allows researchers to refute or support theory.
  • This is done in a controlled and organised way, altering one variable at a time.
  • The degree of support for a hypothesis determines the degree of confidence in a theory.
93
Q

What are empirical methods?

A
  • The use of careful observations and experiments to gather evidence. 
  • Variables are highly controlled and objectively measured so that cause and effect relationships can be established. 
  • The empirical method that we are most familiar with is the laboratory experiment. 
94
Q

What is replication?

A

Repeating the experiment by using the same method to see if the same results can be achieved. 

95
Q

Why do we need replication?

A
  • Increases confidence in results and a theory is strengthened through repeated attempts at falsification.
  • We can be sure of their accuracy beyond reasonable doubt. 
  • Gives us confidence that the results are reliable and can be used to build up a body of knowledge or a theory.
96
Q

What is generalisation?

A

This means applying results from a sample to: 
 - A wider population 
- Other situations 

Psychology (12 decks)

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