5. Approaches in Psychology Flashcards
What is the belief of the behaviourist approach?
All behaviour is learnt - learnt through stimulus response; nothing is innate.
What is classical conditioning?
Learning through association.
(you have two stimuli, you associate them with one another, generating a response)
Formula for classical conditioning?
Neutral Stimulus + Unconditioned Stimulus → Unconditioned Response
Conditioned Stimulus → Conditioned Response
Key classical conditioning studies?
1) Pavlov and his dog
2) Little Albert and rats
What happened in Pavlov’s study?
Bell (NS) + Food (UCS) → Salivation (UCR)
Bell (CS) → Salvation (CR)
Problems with Pavlov’s study?
Animal research cannot by generalised to humans → humans have higher cognition / emotions than animals.
What happened in the Little Albert experiment?
Rat (NS) + Loud noise (UCS) → Fear (UCR)
Rat (CS) → Fear (CR)
What happened to Albert as a result of the classical conditioning?
Stimulus generalisation - fear of anything related to what you are conditioned to fear. → Albert became scared of anything white and fluffy
What is operant conditioning?
Learning through rewards and consequences.
What is positive reinforcement?
Positive reinforcement - additions of something pleasant strengthens behaviours.
What is negative reinforcement?
Negative reinforcement - removal of an unpleasant stimulus strengthens behaviour.
Experiment that studied operant conditioning?
Skinner’s Box
How did Skinner teach positive reinforcement?
- He placed a rat inside a box, the box had a lever.
- Each time the leaver was pressure a food pellet was released - this is positive reinforcement.
How did Skinner teach negative reinforcement?
- In a second box there was an electric current that could be run through it and a lever - every now and again Skinner would run current through the box.
- In response the rat would press the lever to turn off the current - this is negative reinforcement.
Strengths of Skinner’s research?
- Practical application is a strength as we know the theory works in everyday life - token economies - makes research credible.
- Highly scientific - helps to establish cause and effect relationships - easily repeated means more reliability.
Weaknesses of Skinner’s research?
- The approach is short term effective - whilst part of the system you will behaviour well - this leads to questions over ethics: is it right to take basics from people to be earnt back.
- The experiments lack ecological validity.
- Test carried out on animals so there are low level of generalisability as you cannot apply research to humans.
- It ignores cognition because behaviourists don’t believe in studying the unobservable - it is a very mechanistic view of behaviour.
Belief of the biological approach?
All behaviour is strongly influenced by our genetic make-up and genetic inheritance. Behaviour is not learned from others around you.
Features of the biological approach?
- Humans and their behaviour has evolved.
- Influenced by genetic make-up and genetic inheritance.
- Uses biological structure to explain behaviour.
- Uses twin studies to study behaviour - MZ (identical twins) and DZ (non-identical).
How is the biological approach different to the behaviourist approach?
This is different to the behaviourist approach as this approach believes in the ‘nature’ over ‘nurture’ approach.
What structures in the body will the biological approach use to explain human behaviour?
- Evolution - the change in the genetic makeup of a species over time.
- Neurochemistry - how hormones and neurotransmitters interact.
- Endocrine system - controls all the glands in our body.
- Genetics and inheritance
- Brain & CNS
How does the idea of evolution explain the behaviourist approach?
Evolution carries the belief that the ‘weaker genes’ die out and adaptive genes survive. Human behaviour therefore has become ‘wired in’ because of evolution.
If behaviour was been ‘wired in’ what does it suggest human behaviour should be?
If we have evolved to have ‘wired in’ behaviour that suggests behaviour is universal.
What are ‘universal’ behaviour?
→ Aggression
→ Facial expressions (smiling)
What are maladaptive behaviours?
Those that hinder you from adapting to or coping with situations or stressors in healthy ways.
Examples of maladaptive behaviours?
→ Depression
→ Schizophrenia
→ OCD
→ Eating disorders.
What experimental studies does the behaviourist approach use?
→ Family studies - same environment, similar genetics.
→ Twin studies - preferably MZ twins (same genetics).
→ Adoption studies - especially with MZ twins - same genetics, different environments.
Strengths of the biological approach?
1) The approach uses scientific methods - adds reliability.
2) Real world applications.
3) Provides simplistic explanations - easy testing.
4) Clear predictions - we can reject ideas easily.
Weaknesses of the biological approach?
1) Correlational conclusions - lowers the validity.
2) Too deterministic - suggests we have no ‘free will’
3) Difficult to separate nature and nurture.
4) Too simplistic - ignores complexity of human cognition.
How does a deterministic approach to psychology have an impact on society?
If we accept behaviours are biologically driven then our whole system of law becomes flawed. In the UK we work upon the basis that everyone who commits a crime has the free will and makes the choice to commit that offence; if this approach is taken to be true then that system would fall apart.
Belief of the cognitive approach?
All behaviour is driven by internal mental processes.
Examples on internal mental processes?
→ Memory
→ Rehearsal
→ Attention
→ Decision making
Practical applications of the cognitive approach?
Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) → faulty cognition leads to atypical behaviour, so to change behaviour we must first change the cognition behind it.
Features of the cognitive approach?
- Human computer analogies
- Theoretical models
- Inference
- Schemas
- Cognitive neuroscience
What are human computer analogies?
Belief that the human brain is like a computer.
Model:
In humans: stimulus → process (mediator) → response.
In computer: input → process → output.
What are theoretical models?
These are abstract models of cognition e.g. information processing model.
What is inference?
- We make an assumption based on available evidence.
- But cognition is unobservable therefore inference can be misinterpreted.
What are schemas?
- An internal package of ideas to help us interpret the world around us.
- Mental shortcut.
- Basic schemas become more sophisticated through experience.
What is cognitive neuroscience?
- Map cognition to areas of the brain.
- We can do this through neurosurgery, brain scans (fMRI, PET scans).
Strengths of the cognitive approach?
- Highly scientific: high level of reliability - no extraneous variables.
- Practical applications: e.g. eye witness testimony, education.
- Soft determinism: some choice in what/how we remember.
Weaknesses of the cognitive approach?
- Artificial environments: low ecological validity.
- Dehumanising: machine reductionism - no acknowledgment of emotions.
- Soft determinism: controlled by factors beyond your control.
Belief of SLT?
Behaviour is learned by observing others around you.
What side of the nature nurture argument does SLT fall on?
Nurture
What is a model and modelling in SLT?
A model is any person who shows examples of behaviour. Modelling is the copying of behaviour.
What is identification in SLT?
Attaching oneself to a model because they have qualities you like.
What is imitation in SLT?
Imitating a behaviour that has been shown by a model who you have identified with.
What is reinforcement in SLT?
The consequences of behaviour. Behaviour followed by positive reinforcement is strengthened and is likely to continue.
What is vicarious learning?
Modelling a behaviour that you have seen being reinforced because you want to receive similar reinforcement.
Strengths of SLT?
1) Acknowledges the importance of cognitive factors - more complex.
2) Real world applications - can explain cultural differences.
Weaknesses of SLT?
1) Underestimated the influence of biological factors.
2) Generalised behaviours.
3) Artificial environments.
Aim of Bandura’s Bobo Doll study?
If social behaviours (i.e., aggression) can be acquired by observation and imitation.
How were the 72 children divided in Bandura’s study?
A lab experiment was used, in which the independent variable (the type of model) was manipulated in three conditions:
→ Aggressive model is shown to 24 children
→Non-aggressive model is shown to 24 children
→ No model is shown (control condition) – 24 children
Conclusions drawn from Bandura’s SLT experiment?
- Boys are more likely to imitate aggressive behaviour than girls.
- When shown aggressive behaviour children were likely to copy.
Strengths of Bandura’s study?
- Led to debate about shown violence on TV.
- Highly scientific and controlled.
Weaknesses of Bandura’s study?
- Methodology: no long term checks.
- Internal validity.
- Low generalisability.
- Poor ethics.
What is the main belief of the humanism approach?
Humanistic psychology begins with the existential assumptions that people have free will and are motivated to achieve their potential and self-actualize.
What is self-actualisation?
Self-actualisation represents the top level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs - this is when we fulfil our full potential.
Measures of self-actualisation?
(1) Continued freshness of appreciation,
(2) Acceptance,
(3) Authenticity,
(4) Equanimity,
(5) Purpose,
(6) Truth Seeking,
(7) Humanitarianism,
(8) Peak Experiences,
(9) Good Moral intuition,
(10) Creative Spirit.
What are the limitations of self-actualisation?
It is highly subjective - how can you define someone’s full potential.
What idea did Carl Rogers propose?
For personal growth to be achieved an individual’s concept of ‘real self’ must be broadly equivalent to, or have congruence with their ‘ideal self’.
What occurs, according to Rogers, if there is a gap between the ‘real’ and ‘ideal’ self?
If too big a gap exists between the two ‘selves’ the person will not be able to experience self-actualisation.
What is the ‘real’ self?
The way they see themselves.
What is the ‘ideal’ self?
The person they want to be.
What does incongruence stem from?
- A lack of unconditional love.
- Parents who set conditions of worth.
How can we make the real and ideal self-more congruent?
Through therapies - Rogers saw one of his roles as an effective therapist as being able to prove his clients with unconditional positive regard that they had failed to receive as a child.
What is the Q-sort?
Where you measure yourself on a series of traits - demonstrates how congruent you are.
What is the Q-sort for?
It is a quantitative measure - allows for analysis and comparison. Aims to be more object as the humanist approach is often criticised for being too subjective.
What is holism?
Understanding the individual as a whole rather than component parts.
Strengths of the Humanistic approach?
- Its holistic approach.
- Behaviour is considered in a real-world context.
- Positive about human behaviour.
Limitations of the humanistic approach?
- The ideas represent cultural bias.
- Concepts are untestable.
- Lack of practical applications.
- Unrealistic view of humans.
What is the belief of the psychodynamic approach?
All behaviour is driven by the unconscious mind.
What are the three parts of the personality?
ID, Ego and Superego.
What are the three defence mechanisms?
Denial, displacement and repression.
What are the three levels of the mind?
The conscious, the pre-conscious and the unconscious.
What are the five psychosexual stages?
Oral, anal, phallic, latent and genital
What happens, according to Freud if you get stuck in one of the psychosexual stages?
You become fixated, and this would become apparent in your adult personality.
When does the ID part of the personality appear?
The ID is present from before birth.
When does the ego part of the personality appear?
Between 18 months and 3 years.
When does the superego part of the personality appear?
Between 3 and 6 years.
What is the ID part of our personality in control of?
All our biological needs – sex, food/water, death.
What is the ego part of our personality in control of?
The rational part of our personalities.
What is the superego part of our personality in control of?
Acts as a moral guide – to control the ID.
What behaviour is the ID linked to?
Aggression.
What behaviour is the ego linked to?
Rational thinking, problem solving.
What behaviour is the superego linked to?
Feeling guilt and shame.
What principle is the ID linked with?
The pleasure principle.
What principle is the ego linked with?
Reality principle.
What principle is the superego linked with?
Moral principle.
What are defence mechanisms?
Unconscious strategies to reduce anxiety and protect us from unwelcome ideas.
Which part of the personality are defence mechanisms designed to protect?
The ego.
Denial defence mechanism definition?
Rejecting and refusing to accept reality.
Displacement defence mechanism definition?
Redirecting emotions from the actual target to a substitute.
Repression defence mechanism definition?
Hiding an unpleasant or undesirable thought or memory from the conscious mind.
When does the oral psychosexual stage occur?
0-1 years
When does the anal psychosexual stage occur?
1-3 years
When does the phallic psychosexual stage occur?
3-5 years
When does the latency psychosexual stage occur?
5-12 years
When does the genital psychosexual stage occur?
Puberty
Was is the main zone of fixation during the oral stage?
Mouth
Was is the main zone of fixation during the anal stage?
Anus
Was is the main zone of fixation during the phallic stage?
Genitals
Was is the main zone of fixation during the latency stage?
None
Was is the main zone of fixation during the genital stage?
Genitals
What behaviour can fixation in the oral stage result in?
Smoking, nail biting, pen chewing.
What behaviour can fixation in the anal stage result in?
Anally expulsive behaviour - messy, disorganised.
Anally retentive behaviour - perfectionist, controlled.
What behaviour can fixation in the phallic stage result in?
The Oedipus Complex - only in boys
What behaviour can fixation in the genital stage result in?
Inability to form homosexual relationships.
Strengths of the psychodynamic approach?
- Practical application: Freud was the first person to propose the idea of therapy (treating the cause not the symptoms) using psychoanalysis.
- Both nature and nurture argument.
- First person to recognise mental health having the same level of severity as physical health.
Weaknesses of the psychodynamic approach?
- Unscientific methods: unfalsifiable, subjective.
- To much reliance on case studies - Little Hans.
- Deterministic: doesn’t take into account free will.
- Sexualises children.
