7: Psychological Skills II

Question 1

imagery

Answer 1

visualisation, mental rehearsal, symbolic rehearsal, covert practice, mental practice
recreation of experience in mind
recalling information from memory stored as experiences and shaping them as meaningful images
actually a form of stimulation similar to real sensory experience only it takes place in the mind
should involve as many senses as possible as helps to create ore vivid images
often add emotions internationally or automatically

Question 2

imagery vs mental rehearsal

Answer 2

imagery = a symbolic experience that may occur in sensory mode
mental rehearsal = the cognitive rehearsal of a task in the absence of overt physical movement

Question 3

effectiveness of imagery

Answer 3

100% of sports psychologists and 90% athletes use it
97% believing that it helps performance
84% Olympic coaches used it in training and 20% all the time
99% of 235 elite athletes reported vivid use of imagery
elite athletes can utilise it better
beneficial for cognitive rather than physical tasks
national use it more than regional

Question 4

meta-analysis

Answer 4

medium overall effect of imagery interventions
significant enhancement of motor performance, motivational and affective outcomes
imagery and physical practice more effective than physical practice alone
appears to be a dose-response (more you do it the better it gets)

Question 5

when is imagery used

Answer 5

before/during/after performance
athletes report using more before than during and after
underused after practice
should be used in injury rehabilitation and on the occasions that it is more focus is on motivation rather than rehearsal
more emphasis as faster recovery has been identified

Question 6

why do athletes use imagery

Answer 6

content: relates to what the person images e.g. muscles feeling loose
function: refers to why e.g. to feel relaxed, cognitive, and motivational functions
imagery oriented towards general or specific behaviours
higher skill level = increased use of imagery
positive imagery most often reported during practice and pre-competition
negative imagery most often reported during competition

Question 7

content of imagery

Answer 7

the images of the surroundings in which athletes compete
the positive/negative characteristics of image
the senses involved in imagery
perspective taken in creating imagery

Question 8

types of imagery

Answer 8

visual
kinaesthetic
auditory
olfactory
visual and kinaesthetic used most often
visual more effective than kinaesthetic

Question 9

imagery perspective

Answer 9

differs per athlete per situation
internal imagery = execution of a skill from your own POV
external imagery = view from the perspective of an outsider
research: elite athletes prefer internal, few reliable differences between internal/external, difficult to classify someone as either/or, task differences may influence perspective

Question 10

factors affecting imagery

Answer 10

nature of the task
skill level of performer
imaging ability
using imagery with physical practice

Question 11

how imagery works

Answer 11

we can generate information from memory that is essentially the same as an actual experience
imaging events can have an affect on our nervous system similar to that of the real world experience
explanations include: psycho-neuromuscular theory, symbolic learning theory, bio-informational theory

Question 12

psycho-neuromuscular theory

Answer 12

proposes that imagery produces similar neuromuscular activity to the actual movement
ideomotor principle of imagery - selection and control of a particular movement depends on the sensory affect afterwards
evidence:
imagined arm movements produced small muscular contractions
EMG activity greatest when imaging skiing over rough sections of a course
EMG does not replicate exact neural pattern of activity
but, theory in unclear whether activity is muscle specific
this theory predicts imagery should benefit physical tasks more than cognitive ones

Question 13

symbolic learning theory

Answer 13

proposes that imagery generates and strengthens “mental blueprint” of the required action
enables rehearsal of cognitive aspects of skill e.g. strategy or decision making
beneficial effects of mental practice are greater for cognitive than motor tasks
imagery involves the same neural pathways as actual perception

Question 14

bio-informational theory

Answer 14

image: a functionally organised set of propositions stored in the long-term memory of the brain
stimulus propositions: the content of the scene to be imagined
response propositions: verbal, motor, physiological, emotional responses to the scene
imagery instructions that include response generate stronger responses
suggests that performance can be enhanced by repeatedly recalling response propositions for a particular stimulus situation and modifying these responses to represent perfect control and execution of a skill

Question 15

imagery training

Answer 15

should become part of a daily routine
tailored to needs, abilities and interests of the athlete
many different strategies and methods
PETTLEP guidelines invented to make imagery for effective

Question 16

PETTLEP

Answer 16

physical - nature of environment
environment - the specifics
task - type of it
timing - of movement
learning - the content of the movement
emotion - of the movement
perspective - of the person

Question 17

uses of imagery

Answer 17

improve concentration
enhance motivation
build confidence
control emotional responses
acquire, practice, and correct sports skills
acquire and practice strategies
prepare for the competition
cope with pain/injury
solve problems

Question 18

concluding imagery

Answer 18

most effective when using multiple senses
most effective when including stimulus and response propositions
effectiveness may be mediated by imagery ability
neuroscience revealing more about the degree of functional equivalence between imagery and perception

Question 19

goal setting

Answer 19

specific goals are better than general or ‘do your best’ goals
difficult or challenging goals are better than moderate or easy
short term goals can help attain long term
goal setting works better when there is timely feedback showing progress in relation to the goal
goals must be accepted
goal attainment is facilitated by plan of action
goals are more effective when they exit your head

Question 20

SMARTER princples

Answer 20

specific
measurable
actioned
resourced
time based
evaluate
reset

Question 21

issues with goal setting research in sport

Answer 21

methodological: setting own goals/rejecting assigned goals, small sample size
individual and task characteristics: sport participants already motivated, feedback more immediate

Question 22

meta analysis

Answer 22

goals with larger effect sizes
- specific
- moderately difficult
- combined long term and short term
- public goals
- goals set where participant in involved in process

Question 23

public goal setting intervention

Answer 23

self-set and public posting of performance goals in five college backers looking at reads, drops and tackles
rapid improvement in practice and competition performance
baseline at 70%, post-intervention 95%

Question 24

how goals influence performer

Answer 24

directs attention: improve focus and gives meaning to training and comps
effort mobilisation: this is still needed by athletes and may not be achieved by goal setting alone
persistence: the importance of the goal to the athlete drives this
development of new learning strategies: the above will lead the athlete to test new strategies and ways of achieving their goals

Question 25

defining success and competence

Answer 25

2 major goals originally proposed reflecting different ways of judging competence
task: self-improvement
ego: being superior to others

Question 26

adaptive outcomes from task related goals

Answer 26

engaging in training
giving best effort in training and comps
exhibiting persistence even when things are not going well
selecting optimally challenging activities and opponents
performing to potential consistently
continually working on improvement

Question 27

ego goals

Answer 27

holds back in effort and training
experiences performance impairment as a result of doubts as to whether they are good enough
selects challenges that are too difficult or too easy
withdraw from sport as a result of feeling incompetent

Question 28

focus on performance and/or process rather than outcome

Answer 28

e.g. focus on scanning for a target to pass to and/or increasing pass completion rather than winning, getting rewards, signing contract etc.