6: Psychological Skills

Question 1

psychological skills training (PST)

Answer 1

“systematic and consistent practice of mental or psychological skills for the purpose of enhancing performance, increasing enjoyment, or achieving greater sport and physical activity self-satisfaction”
some distinguish between psychological skills (desired outcome) and methods/techniques (means)
others distinguish between basic skills and advanced skills

Question 2

basic vs advanced skills

Answer 2

basic = relaxation, goal setting, imagery, self-talk
advanced = controlling anxiety, optimising self-confidence, motivation, attention

Question 3

PST interventions

Answer 3

meta-analysis found PST interventions overall moderately effective in improving sport performance
it can facilitate athletic performance

Question 4

anxiety in athletes

Answer 4

anxiety = unpleasant emotion which is characterised by vague but persistent feelings of apprehension and dread
tension often accompanied by a heightened state of physiological arousal
different from fear which is a brief emotional reaction to a stimulus that is perceived as threatening
research is challenged by conceptual confusion between arousal and anxiety
arousal refers to a bodily energy which primes or prepares us for emergency action
anxiety is an emotional label for a particular type of arousal experience

Question 5

anxiety is multidimensional

Answer 5

cognitive (mental) = worry and negative thoughts
somatic (physical) = nervousness, tension, increased perspiration, pounding heart
behavioural = tense facial expressions, changes in communication

Question 6

causes of anxiety

Answer 6

perceived importance
predispositions
attributions and expectations
perfectionism
fear of failure
lack of confidence

Question 7

coping definition

Answer 7

“a process of constantly changing cognitive and behavioural efforts to manage specific external and/or internal demands or conflicts appraised as taxing or exceeding one’s own resources”

Question 8

coping categories

Answer 8

problem focused coping = efforts to alter or manage the problem that causing the stress, information gathering, pre-competition/competition plans, goal setting, time management skills, increasing effort, self-talk
emotion focused coping = regulating the emotional responses to the problem that cause stress, meditation, relaxation, wishful thinking, reappraisal, mental and behavioural withdrawal

Question 9

coping - the matching hypothesis

Answer 9

techniques used should match anxiety felt
cognitive anxiety - mental relaxation
somatic anxiety - physical relaxation
some crossover - techniques can reduce CA and SA

Question 10

controlling anxiety in sport

Answer 10

have to understand the pressure experienced
constructive interpretation of signals
giving specific instructions
adhering to pre-performance routines
constructive thinking
simulated training

Question 11

study: elite vs non-elite rugby players psych skills

Answer 11

elite performers found their somatic anxiety and worry much more facilitative
non elite athletes appear to use more somatic skills - relaxation
elite athletes use performance enhancing skills - imagery, goal setting, self-talk

Question 12

aims of PTS

Answer 12

increase performers’ self awareness
improve performers’ ability to self regulate
compare training vs competition, best vs worst performances
checklists can be used, or test of performance states (TOPS)

Question 13

conceptual frameworks

Answer 13

behaviour modification: classical conditioning, operant learning, stimulus control
cognitive: challenging maladaptive cognitions is central
cognitive-behavioural: cognitions (thoughts and beliefs) and behavioural

Question 14

the behavioural model

Answer 14

learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour that takes place through experience
focus of consultancy is on client’s learned experiences as reflected by current behaviours
both normal and abnormal behaviours can be learned and unlearned
classical, operant, sociocultural

Question 15

classical conditioning

Answer 15

unconditioned stimulus: an event or object that causes a reflex or instinctive (unlearned) emotional or physiological response e.g. dog food
unconditioned response: the reflective or instinctive emotional or physiological response caused by the conditioned stimulus e.g. drooling at food
neutral stimulus presented
conditioned stimulus: an event or object that develops an association with the unconditioned stimulus e.g. bell associated with food
conditioned response: a learned emotional or physiological response that is similar in appearance to the unconditional response e.g. dog learns to drool when ringing bell

Question 16

operant conditioning

Answer 16

deals with modification of voluntary behaviour (responses, reinforcement)
behaviours are maintained by consequences unlike classical conditioning
“an observable response changes in frequency or duration as the result of a consequence”
consequence = any outcome that occurs after behaviour and influences future behaviour
basic process: reinforcement, punishment extinction, scheduling
reinforcement = results in behaviour proceeding it being strengthened
positive = increasing the frequency or duration of a behaviour as a result of presenting a reinforcer
negative = removing or avoiding a stimulus to increase behaviour

Question 17

relaxation

Answer 17

ability to control or interpret anxiety discriminates high skilled from low skilled performers
muscle to mind relaxation = progressive relaxation, differential active, passive PR, differential relaxation, diaphragmatic breathing
mind to muscle relaxation = thought stopping, cognitive reappraisal/restructuring, mediation

Question 18

muscle to mind relaxation

Answer 18

breathing exercises - complete breath, sighing with exhalation, rhythmic breathing
progressive relaxation exercises - tensing and relaxing different muscles, full body scan, important process for systematic desensitisation
diaphragmatic breathing

Question 19

applied relaxation

Answer 19

process to get athletes to relax taking 20-30 minutes to just seconds
8 weeks of training
PMR + breathing
cue words
application
decrease in somatic and cognitive anxiety, increases direction for both (somatic more beneficial)
no clear effect on performance

Question 20

implication: acclimatisation training

Answer 20

importance of practicing under anxiety e.g. rewards, video cameras, observers, evaluation apprehension
study: basketball players perform better under anxiety conditions

Question 21

self-talk

Answer 21

“words actually spoken, or ones that come into one’s mind”
key component in cognitive interventions
core component of cognitive anxiety
giving instructions, reinforcement or interpretation of feelings or perceptions
Hardy defined self talk as: verbalisations or statements addressed to the self, multidimensional in nature, having interpretive elements, somewhat dynamic, serves at least two functions (instructional and motivational)
meta-analysis found self-talk was consistently positively associated with improved performance, negative self talk not always detrimental

Question 22

self-talk II

Answer 22

self-talk was put forward as the best predictor of performance indications
can be asset in enhancing self-worth by regulating arousal and anxiety and changing cognitions
liability when negative as distracts from automatic performance
especially destructive when general labels are used e.g. choke or loser
affects wellbeing as well as performance
Seligman described depression as nothing more than a disorder of conscious thought
more self-talk found in competitions than practice

Question 23

self talk important for

Answer 23

skill acquisition
changing bad habits
attention control
creating affect of mood
controlling effort
building self-efficacy
increasing adoption and maintenance of exercise behaviour

Question 24

identifying self talk

Answer 24

retrospection: reflecting on situations, recreating thoughts, feelings, use of video before during and after
imagery: relaxation and reliving past performance, recreating all relevant sensory experience
self-talk log: accurate awareness of self-talk rather than reliance on recall that can be distorted
biggest influence on self-efficacy is performance accomplishments

Question 25

prerequisites for gaining confidence

Answer 25

understanding the interaction of thought and performance
cultivate honest self-awareness
develop an optimistic explanatory style
embrace a psychology of excellence

Question 26

honest self awareness

Answer 26

athletes need to acknowledge what they are saying to themselves
what the circumstances are when the self-talk occurs
what are the consequences of the self talk
am i thinking in a way that will promote success

Question 27

optimistic explanatory style

Answer 27

relevant to the sporting domain in which there are many setbacks and disappointment
three dimensions
- permanence: feelings about whether positive or negative events will repeat themselves
- pervasiveness: generalisation to other contexts
- personalisation: extent to which they see themselves as the primary casual agent

Question 28

psychology of excellence

Answer 28

approach components to enhance patterns of constructive thinking, energy, optimism and enthusiasm
- go for your dreams
- focus on your successes
- be your own best friend, biggest fan and greatest coach
- create your own reality