7. Pressure Groups

Question 1

The extent of political pluralism vs elitism - The revolving-door

Answer 1

Positives - provide legislators and bureaucrats with useful information

Negatives - Former members of Congress (or executive) take up well-paid jobs with Washington-based lobbying firms, using their expertise and contacts to lobby their previous institution, exploiting their connections to further the interest of their pressure group clients and by doing os make large amounts of money

(works for both depending on how you argue it) E.g. The Podesta Group, started by John Podesta (former White House chief of staff to President Bill Clinton and served in the Obama White House) has headquarters just 5 blocks east of the White House

Question 2

The extent of political pluralism vs elitism - The iron-triangle

Answer 2

Positives - Act as a sounding band for legislators at the policy formulation stage in the legislative process

Negatives - A strong relationship between pressure groups, relevant congressional committees and relevant gov department which attempts to achieve mutually beneficial policy outcomes, pluralist society, fostering an elitist view
E.g.In 2021, the NRA spent $4.2m on lobbying, according to non-partisan US research firm OpenSecrets. OpenSecrets’ figures suggest that since 2010, the NRA has directed more than $140m to pro-gun election candidates.

Question 3

The extent of political pluralism vs elitism - Inequality of groups

Answer 3

Positives - Provide order, priorities, channell the wishes of members whom it seeks to represent and aggregate views in political debate- especially policy debate

Negatives - Leads to unfair representation of some views- the larger groups have more resources and money so their views are more favourable
E.g. the NRA vs. Handgun Control Inc, big business outweigh the environmental protectionists (elitism)

Question 4

The extent of political pluralism vs elitism - Special interests vs public interests

Answer 4

Positives - Increase opportunities for representing minority views that would be lost in the big political parties. E.g.

Negatives - Put the interest of a small group above the interest of society as a whole.
E.g. The NAACP, NAHH (National Association for Hispanic Health) focus on a ethnic minorities and see this as ‘atomising’ American society.
Can lead to stereotypes of all black or all Jews thinking one way or want the same policies. As long as their client group is happy they rarely consider the implications for all of society. (Sup C nominee Clarence Thomas in 1991 was a conservative black who did not fit the group-think of liberal politics as espoused by the NAACP and most black pressure groups)

Question 5

The extent of political pluralism vs elitism - Buying political influence

Answer 5

Positives -

Negatives - Lobbyists acting on behalf of business corporations write legislation for members of Congress
E.g. In 2021, the NRA spent $4.2m on lobbying, according to non-partisan US research firm OpenSecrets. OpenSecrets’ figures suggest that since 2010, the NRA has directed more than $140m to pro-gun election candidates.

Question 6

The extent of political pluralism vs elitism - Using direct action

Answer 6

Positives - Enhance the 2 fundamental rights of freedom of speech and freedom of association. E.g. despite some pressure groups being controversial they still have a right to form like (?)

Negatives - Undemocratic
When pressure groups use unacceptable levels of violence to pursue their political agenda. Associated with pro and anti-abortion groups, environmentalists, anti-capitalists and groups on the extreme-right pursuing anti-gov agenda.
E.g. headlines in the 1990s’ of shooting, bombings & murders were conducted around abortion clinics by ‘pro-life’ groups

Question 7

Types of pressure groups - Sectional pressure groups

Question 8

Types of pressure groups - Causal pressure groups

Question 9

Resources of pressure groups - money

Answer 9

The NRA was able to send over $5 million in lobbying in 2017 and contributed over $700,000 to electoral campaigns in 2018 - without money it is difficult to sustain influence

Question 10

Resources of pressure groups - membership

Question 11

Resources of pressure groups - access

Answer 11

A report in 2018 suggested that 340 former congressional staff worked for pharmaceutical groups or their lobbying firms thereby offering them valuable information on the legislative process but also bring with them address to the people they used to work with

Question 12

Functions of pressure groups - representation

Answer 12

US citizens can have their views represented.
An important link between the public and politicians.
For many they will be the most important way in which their strongest-held views are represented.
E.g. one’s senator will have many calls upon their representative roles-a great variety of constituents, their political party and the administration- 3 of the most important.
All can have their views represented in all 3 branches of gov at the federal, state and local levels.

Question 13

Functions of pressure groups - citizen participation

Answer 13

Increase the opportunities for participation between elections.
Many seek far greater, more frequent participation in the democratic process.
Offer an opportunity to participate in a specific policy area e.g. pro-guns, anti-abortion or whatever policy or issue a particular citizen feels deeply about.

Question 14

Functions of pressure groups - agenda building

Answer 14

Attempt to influence political parties, legislators and bureaucrats to give priority to their members’ interests.
Attempt to bring together parts of US society e.g., business groups, religious groups, state govs and professional organisations- to achieve a common interest.
E.g. Berry and Wilcox are manufacturers and distributors of CDs, DVDs and computer software working together to get govs to pay attention to the problem of piracy of such goods. As a result, China promised to close down factories that were illegally duplicating American goods.

Question 15

Functions of pressure groups - public education

Question 16

Functions of pressure groups - programme monitoring

Answer 16

May scrutinise and hold the gov to account in the implementation of policies, to try to ensure that promises are fulfilled, policies delivered and regulations.
After the passage of the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act in 2002 the Campaign Finance Institute commissioned a set of studies by scholars on the law’s impact on the funding of campaigns.
Result- pressure groups like the NRA and ACLU will sometimes bring cases to the state and federal courts asking the judicial branch of gov to monitor the effects of legislation.
The ACLU brought the 1st legal challenge to President Trump’s executive order placing a 90-day ban on entry into the US from 7 predominantly Muslim countries during the 1st weeks of his presidency.

Question 17

Methods of pressure groups - Electioneering and endorsement

Answer 17

Since the campaign finance reforms of the 1970s, changes have taken place in the role of pressure groups and fundraising. The reforms limited the amount that any pressure group could give to a candidate in a federal election.

What the reforms encouraged, therefore, was the setting up of political action committees (PACS) and Super PACS that could make such donations. A PAC is an organisation whose purpose is to raise and then give campaign funds to candidates for political office.

Pressure groups also actively support or oppose presidential and congressional candidates on the basis of the candidates’ positions on the policy areas of concern to them. In 2016, the pro-life group the National Right to And Donald Trump while the pro-choice group NARAL endorsed Hillary C

Websites offered candidate comparisons in crucial congressional races so that voters could clearly see the differences between those candidates being endorsed and those being opposed. Every two years, the League of Conservation Voters (LCV) publishes its ‘dirty dozen’ list- the 12 candidates with what they regard as the worst record on environmental conservation. Its ‘dirty dozen’ list for the 2016 elections included eight members of Congress- four from each house (see Table 7.13). But the LCV’s record was far from impressive with only three of its dirty dozen defeated, including only one incumbent. Clearly being on this list in 2016 was not as damning as one might have thought. The LCV’s record in previous election cycles had been more impressive.

Question 18

Methods of pressure groups - public education

Answer 18

Attempt to educate public opinion, warning people of the possible dangers if issues are not addressed, as well as the likely effects of decisions made by the government. As Jeffrey Berry and Clyde Wilcox (2007) comment:
With their advocacy efforts, publications and publicity campaigns, pressure groups can make people better aware of both policy problems and proposed solutions.

Question 19

Methods of pressure groups - Lobbying

Answer 19

E.g a 2013 bill passed the House which would have rolled back part of the Dodd-Frank Act which was passed in 2010 to place regulation of the financial industry in the hands of the government after the economic crash of 2007-2008. What was signifincat was that the language in the bill was almost identical to language suggested by lobbysits for Citigroup, one of America’s largest banks. While this might not be the morn, it shows how powerful they can be especially as some members of Congress did not know the laguage was drawn up by lobbyists

E.g. target cabinet nominees. President Trump’s pick for attorney general was Jess Sessions. At his hearings both the NAACP and the National Fraternal Order of the POlice gave evidence on his credentials for this role. It may be that groups are trying to infleunce the appointment or rejection of a canddate, or it may be that they are simply trying to build a relationship with that candidate, thereby giving them greater infleunce once they are appointed. Either way, the experitise of these groups offer can be valualbe to Congrss both in elgislating and in ratifying appointments.

E.g. the NRA is so large and well organised it has its own lobbying arm within its structure, the NRA Institute for Legilsative Action. The executive VP, Wayne LaPierre, of the NRA lobbied the 115th Congress on hundreds of issues. In 2013 he gave evidence directly to COngress on the ssue of gun contrl on a hearing about what America should do about gun violence. Here he publicly advocated for better education about gun saftye, better insturction on the use by qualified instructors and better saftey in schools follwoing the massacre in Sandy Hook. He also advocated for the propoer enforcement of existing firearms laws rather than the addiion of new ones

Question 20

Methods of pressure groups - Voting cues and scorecards

Answer 20

Liberal Dems look to groups like AFL-CIO, the NAACP and Americans for Democratic Action (ADA) to provide reassurance that they are taking the right stand on a particular issue.

Cons R’s find the American Conservative Union (ACU), Americans for Constitutional Action (ACA) and the US Chamber of Commerce equally helpful.

Groups like ADA, the AFL-CIO and the ACU publish regular ratings of legislators, showing how often -or how rarely a particular legislator has supported policy positions in line with the views of that particular group.

When the AFL-CIO published its Senate Scorecard for the 1st session of the 114th Congress (2015), it ranked each senator on how they had voted on what the AFL-CIO regarded as 14 key votes during that year.

At the approval end of the scale, 22 senators- all Democrats had 100% ratings, having voted in agreement with the AFL-CIO position on all 14 votes.
These included Charles Schumer of New York and Al Franken of Minnesota.

The lowest rating was zero for Republicans Ben Sasse of Nebraska and Bob Corker of Tennessee.

Question 21

Methods of pressure groups - Organising grassroots activities

Answer 21

Often thought to be the most effective, especially when aimed directly at legislators or policy-makers.

Activities may include the organisation of a social media or phone ‘blitz’ on Congress, the White House or a department.
Members of Congress pay little attention to the arrival of such communications, so pressure groups encourage members to frame their own written and verbal protests.

There are firms that exist to orchestrate mail, e-mail and telephone blitzes.
Marches and demonstrations are sometimes aimed at state and federal courthouses, where other forms of lobbying are inappropriate.

Whenever the Sup C delivers a judgement on a controversial issue like abortion, school prayers, capital punishment, gun control or minority rights, the building is surrounded with people from pressure groups representing the opposing sides of the argument.

Question 22

Methods of pressure groups - mounting legal challenges (511)

Answer 22

Amicus curaie briefs - minority groups can submit their opinions to SCOTUS for consideration in their cases. More than 60 were filed in the case of Trump v Hawaii (2018) rearding the travel ban, including briefs from large groups such as the NAACP and inviduals such as Khriz Khan the father of a Muslim US army captain who had been killed in action in Iraq

Question 23

Areas of pressure group influence - environmental protection

Answer 23

Friends of the Earth

The League of Conservation Voters (LCV) opposed the Keystone XL Pipeline (an oil pipeline that would run thousands of miles). It spent millions of dollars on adverts advocating for and against candidates in the 2010 election cycle and spent thousands of dollars directly lobbying Congress on the issue

Nonetheless it was passed by Congress and was only stopped in 2015 by a presidential veto

In 2017 Trump uses his presidential powers to allow Keystone to advance once again - suggests I’d anything that the most the LCV achieved was a temporary halt

Question 24

Areas of pressure group influence - abortion rights

Answer 24

National Abortion and Reproductive Rights Action League (NARAL) a pro-choice group organised mass protests through its website against the appointment of Brett Kavanugh to the US SCOTUS, as well as organising online campaigns under the banner #StopKavanaugh.

Also, occupied the state office of Senator Chuck Grassley, in Iowa, and stormed the Senate and packed the offices of Senators Donnelly, Murkowski, Corker and Grassley to lodge objection.

Despite making headlines on major news outlets he was ultimately confirmed

Question 25

Areas of pressure group influence - gun control

Answer 25

NRA

Question 26

Areas of pressure group influence - economic inequality

Question 27

Areas of pressure group influence - race

Answer 27

NAACP

Question 28

Impact on Congress - lobbying members committees

Answer 28

Make direct contact with members of Congress and senior members of their staff

On the websites of pressure group they will likely have directions as to how to contact your members of Congress along with regular updates on the current state of relevant legislation going through Congress

Question 29

Impact on Congress - lobbying congrssional committees

Answer 29

Target standing committee oversight hearings

Senate Judiciary Committee hearing on “Protecting Older Americans from Financial Exploitation” in 2016- pressure group witness were Joseph Marquart, Member, AARP Iowa Executive Council

House Judiciary Committee hearing on “State of Religious Liberty in America” in 2017- pressure group witness Kim Colby, Christian Legal Society’s Center for Law and Religious Freedom

Question 30

Impact on Congress - organising constituents

Answer 30

Get them to write to, telephone, e-mail or visit their member of Congress to express either support for or opposition to a certain policy.

Likely to occur just before a high-profile committee hearing, floor debate or final passage vote.

2016 a united cross-sector set of over 1,500 pressure groups representing. organised labour and environmental groups, organised a joint letter-writing campaign urging Congress to oppose the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP).

Question 31

Impact on Congress - publicising voting records and endorsing candidates

Answer 31

Publicise the voting records of House and Senate members, sometimes offering their own rankings

At election time they endorse supportive and oppose non-supportive incumbents by fundraising and media advertising

E.g The NRA endorsed the candidacy of the governor Alabmaa who in 2022 signed legilsationabolishing the requirement in Alabama to get a permit to carry a concealed handgun in public.

Question 32

Impact on the executive

Answer 32

Seek to maintain strong ties with relevant executive departments, agencies and regulatory commissions. Especially the case with the regulatory work of the federal gov regulations.
E.g. health and safety at work, business, the transport and communications industries, and the environment.

Question 33

Impact on the judiciary

Answer 33

One of the most active in the courts is the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU).
In 2005, the ACLU was at the Sup C in the case of McCreary v ACLU, where the Court ruled that a display of the Ten Commandments in a Kentucky courthouse was unconstitutional

Parents Involved in Community Schools (PICS)
In 2007 PICS v Seattle School District, where the Court declared it unconstitutional to assign students to public (i.e. state-run) schools solely for the purpose of achieving racial balance.

The National Rifle Association
In 2008 they played a significant role in the landmark case of District of Columbia v Heller, in which the Sup C declared Washington DC’s ban on handguns to be unconstitutional.

The National Federation of Independent Business (NFIB)
In 2012 they brought the landmark legal challenge to President Obama’s healthcare reform - Obamacare the case making it all the way to the Sup C

The ACLU
In 2017 fighting a gender discrimination case concerning transgender student rights in Virginia, in Gloucester County School Board v G.G.

Question 34

Functions of pressure groups - report cards

Answer 34

In 2018 pressure groups showed support for each member of Congress for a specific issue. (NRA was 2017)

NRA (supporting right to bear arms) - Sanders D- and Machinin A

ACLU (support rights) - Sander 94% whereas Machinin got 41%

Question 35

Pressure groups are good for democracy

Answer 35

Representative - can represent minority groups and their interests, which might be ignored or overlooked in a winner-takes-all system (NAACP). Also, they encourage their members to turn out in elections, increasing the legitimacy of those elected (report cards)

Liberal - can raise issues about and work to protect rights which can include bringing cases to the SCOTUS. Also, they can raise issues that hold the gov to account thereby limiting their power

Pluralist - gives interest groups a greater number of access points dispersing power. Smaller interest groups have had success in gaining national attention for their issues even if not achieving legislative change.

Question 36

Pressure groups are not good for democracy

Answer 36

Representative - can undermine the power of legitimately elected local representatives. Also, the power of interest groups over the legislature can work in the interest and even overrepresentation of the minority

Liberal - free and fair elections can be undermined by the money that interest groups pump into elections. Also, tolerance of more extremist groups can appear to undermine the right of other groups. Also, interest groups that use illegal methods undermine the rule of law

Pluralist - interest groups with more money seem to have a disproportionate amount of influence (NRA). Also, the same interest groups annually seem to retain influence over the political process.