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A Level Politics - Component 1 > 7. Liberalism > Flashcards

7. Liberalism Flashcards

1
Q

How can the ideas of classical liberals be summarised?

A
  • Government by consent
  • Guarantee of individual freedom
  • Representative democracy
  • A limited role for the state within society and the economy
  • Individuals are born with natural rights
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2
Q

What are the political ideas of classical liberalism commonly associated with?

A

The age of Enlightenment in the eighteenth century

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3
Q

What did modern liberalism argue for?

A
  • An increased role of the state both in society and the economy.
  • Some felt it enhanced individual freedom and was a logical continuation of the ideas of classical liberalism.
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4
Q

What are the core ideas of Liberalism?

A
  • Individualism
  • Freedom / Liberty
  • The state (a necessary evil)
  • Rationalism
  • Equality and Social Justice
  • Liberal Democracy
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5
Q

What do Liberals believe about individualism?

A

The preservation of individual rights and freedom are above any claims by the state within society

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6
Q

What is foundational equality?

A
  • All individuals are born with natural rights which entitle them to:
  • Liberty
  • Pursuit of happiness
  • Avoidance of pain
  • Translates to the rule of law where all people are treated equally under the law.
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7
Q

What does modern liberalism argue in counter to classical liberalism in regards to the equality of society?

A
  • Classical liberalism underplays the level of inequality in society.
  • Society is not equal and some individuals have a distinct advantage over other.
  • Negative freedoms practiced by classical liberalism only exacerbates the inequalities rather than addressing them
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8
Q

What do modern liberals think determine one’s societal position?

A
  • Race
  • Gender
  • Social Class
  • Innate Intelligence
    etc.
  • These determinants are of great importance as to whether an individual thrived or underachieved in society.
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9
Q

What is egotistical individualism?

A

Individual freedom is associated with a rational sense of self-reliance and self-interest

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10
Q

What is developmental individualism?

A
  • Individuals must help themselves in order to improve.
  • Classical liberals feel the state should interfere as little as possible in this process.
    Modern liberals feel the state can assist in an individuals development via intervention. (free education)
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11
Q

What is the classical liberal attitude towards individualism?

A
  • The primary motivation of an individual is egotistical individualism.
  • Freedom of the individual is sacrosanct.
  • The state should be small (maintaining law and order, protecting from invasion)
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12
Q

What is formal equality?

A

Every individual is entitled to equal treatment in society.

Equality of opportunity, abolition of artificial social distinctions such as gender inequality

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13
Q

What is modern liberalism attitude towards individualism?

A
  • Positive freedoms to make society fairer through developmental individualism.
  • The state must offer a ‘hand up’ if every individual is to achieve the goal of self-reliance.
  • Expand state involvement if the needs arise (post WW2)
  • An interventionist state is the only way to ensure human rights of ‘life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness’ are met.
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14
Q

What did Locke think of alternative religions and political views?

A

He focused on respecting them

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15
Q

How has individual tolerance been extended in the twenty-first century?

A

Towards homosexuals and (possibly) transgendered people.

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16
Q

What is the social contract?

A

The government makes itself accountable to people and to operate within the law.

The people in turn agree to obey laws and uphold security of the state.

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17
Q

What is limited government?

A

A governments should be constrained by strong laws and constraints.

Both neo-liberals and classical liberals believe strongly in this form of government.

All branches of liberalism support entrenched constitutions and the separation of powers to reinforce limited government.

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18
Q

What is laissez-faire capitalism?

A

The theory that wealth creation and capitalism are enhanced if the state does not interfere with the market for goods, services and labour.

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19
Q

What were early liberals particularly resentful of?

A

Authoritarian government.
Absolute monarchies.

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20
Q

What did Locke argue as to the link between freedom and law?

A

‘Where there is no law there is no liberty’

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21
Q

What is the role of government according to Locke?

A

Protection of man’s right to ‘life, liberty and estate’.

The state should mediate between competiting individuals to enforce order, protect property rights and prevent breach of contracts / fraud

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22
Q

What did early liberals think of absolute monarchies?

A

They are illegitimate.

The state should be constructed by a social contract in which individuals are governed by consent.

Rationalistic proposition that individuals would be willing to enter into a social contract to allow the state to act as a neutral umpire to resolve clashes.

The American Revolution proved an excellent example of the social contract with the constitution.

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23
Q

How did J.S. Mill broaden what was meant by freedom?

A
  • Advocation for freedom of speech, thought and religion (unless they pose a threat to others)
  • Individuals should be free from interference even if they harm themselves (harm principle)
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24
Q

What type of society does classical liberalism think exists?

A

Atomistic.

Individuals collect with their own interests.

People should not have to serve a broader ‘public interest’ or ‘common good’.

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25
Q

What did classical liberals think of welfare?

A

Should not be provided by the state as this just makes people dependent on the state

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26
Q

What moral right did J.S. Mill think the state had?

A

A moral right to educate individuals.

(Start of modern liberalism)

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27
Q

What did T.H. Green think of atomism in classical liberalism?

A

He disagreed, thinking society was organic with a common good and that public interest coincided with individual interests

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28
Q

What did Green realise about negative freedoms?

A

They are good, but they do not take into account the threat of freedom due to social and material disadvantage within society and the economy

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29
Q

What did Rawls think should happen to the state?

A

It should increase to an ‘enabling’ state.

This would ensure an individual’s life chances were not determined by status at birth

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30
Q

Positive freedom v Negative freedom?

A
  • Positive - Positive acts that allow individuals to do as they please
  • Negative - Protecting individuals freedom
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31
Q

How has liberalism dealt with female rights?

A

They work within the structure of mainstream society to integrate women into that structure

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32
Q

What is a minimal state?

A

The role of the state must be restricted in order to preserve individual liberty

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33
Q

What is an enabling state?

A

One where there is a responsibility reduce or remove social inequalities that can hold people back

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34
Q

What type of state do classical liberals want?

A

Enabling state

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35
Q

What type of state do modern liberals want?

A

minimal state

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36
Q

What is the mechanistic theory ?

A
  • Society is not ‘organic’, its mechanistic
  • All parts are equal and interchangeable
  • Humans created society as a sort of machine
  • It should work for the benefit of the individual
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37
Q

What is the similarity between classical and modern liberals beliefs of government and civil liberties?

A

Both believe in decentralisation of government and protection of civil liberties

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38
Q

What Is the idea of ‘human reason’?

A

Humans should be free to make their own decisions without needing to be guided by external authorities

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39
Q

What is the idea of rationalism?

A
  • We should all take responsibility for the choices we make, good or bad.
  • Faith in reason and science, rather than religion, authority or tradition
  • Reasoned debate should always come before conflict
  • E.g. In the 20th C., liberals supported the United Nations and European Union for these very reasons
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40
Q

What were the liberal ideas having limited the power of the state?

A
  • Right to bear arms
  • Homosexual marriages
  • Low detainment times
  • Being entitled to hold the government accountable for actions they’ve made
  • Equality Act that protects people from discrimination
  • Freedom of speech
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41
Q

What is equality of opportunity?

A

Giving people an equal chance to succeed/ equal opportunities.

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42
Q

What is keynesianism?

A

State manages economy by spending more when in recession and cutting spending when there is inflation

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43
Q

What is the difference between modern and classical liberals on equality and social justice with state intervention?

A

Although most modern liberals believe that should be some state intervention to narrow inequalities, classical liberals believe that inequality can actually act as an incentive for people to try and better themselves by working harder

44
Q

What is the view on rewards under equality and social justice?

A

Individuals with different talents should be rewarded differently

45
Q

What was the Enlightenment?

A

A movement that emphasised science and reason to help see the world more clearly

46
Q

What guiding principles are liberal democracy based on?

A
  • Free elections
  • Limitations on the power of the state
  • Respect for civil liberties and toleration of different viewpoints
47
Q

What is the idea of social contract under liberal democracy?

A

That people must agree to be governed in order for society to run smoothly. There must also be an agreement to give up some freedom in the interest of security

48
Q

What does modern liberals argue for relating to liberal democracy?

A
  • They argue for the protection of minority rights because excessive democracy could potentially lead to the ‘tyranny of the majority’. - E.g. a referendum to take rights away from a minority group that was passed WOULD have been a democratic decision, but it would also result in the persecution of that minority group
49
Q

What are the core principles of liberalism?

A
  • Human nature
  • The state
  • Society
  • The economy
50
Q

What are liberals view on human nature?

A
  • Liberals see people as rational individuals, capable of perceiving their own interests and taking their own decisions
  • They stress the positive potential of human nature
51
Q

How do classical and modern liberals differ on their view on human nature?

A
  • Classical liberals believe that people should be restricted only where there is risk of their threatening the freedom of others
  • Modern liberals have been more conscious of social injustice, and favour some external intervention by the state to counter this
52
Q

What are liberals view on the state?

A
  • The idea that the state is based on the agreement of the people, who choose to give up some freedom in return for security.
  • Liberals believe in limited government, with checks and balances to prevent abuses of power
  • They are keen that the state does not deprive people of their civil liberties.
  • Liberals often support the decentralisation of power, so that authority is dispersed between different levels of government and not concentrated at the centre.
53
Q

What are liberals view on society?

A
  • Seeing it primarily as a collection of individuals, pursuing their own interests.
  • They advocated the concept of a meritocracy, whereby individuals succeed through their own ability and hard work.
  • This entails a belief in the importance of foundational equality - people are born equal.
54
Q

What do modern liberals believe with the concept of meritocracy being implemented into society?

A

That this, own its own, is not enough to guarantee true social equality.

55
Q

What are liberals view on the economy?

A
  • The idea that the economy is best served by limited state intervention.
  • By contrast in the 20th century, modern liberals were more conscious of the fallings of the market, and argued that state intervention is necessary to promote sustainable growth and to limit the injustice associated with large-scale unemployment and poverty.
56
Q

What are liberalists views on freedom with examples from thinkers?

A
  • Freedom is the most important liberal value, but it must be exercised under the law
  • We still need the law to uphold our freedom
  • 17th C. John Locke - the aim of law is to protect and uphold freedom
  • 19th C. John Stuart Mill - ‘negative freedom’. Individuals should only be restrained when their actions harm others
57
Q

What is a meritocracy?

A

A system in which promotion is based on individual ability or achievement

58
Q

What are the six key points of liberal democratic theory?

A
  • Supremacy of the people
  • The consent of the governed as the basis of legitimacy
  • The rule of law and peaceful methods of conflict resolution
  • The existence of a common good or public interest
  • The value of the individual as rational, moral and active
  • Political equality and equal civil rights for all
59
Q

Why is there a disconnect between the two strands of liberalism?

A

They both have fundamentally different understandings of what freedom means and therefore, they have fundamentally different understandings on how this informs the role of the state

60
Q

What type of freedom does classical liberalism believe in?

A

Negative freedom

61
Q

How did classical liberals implement negative freedom?

A

Advocation for a society with freedom of thought, discussion, religion and assembly.

‘Harm principle’ as well.

62
Q

Why did Mills think that egoistical individualism was the best way to organise society?

A

Individuals are sovereign and capable of free will to organise their lives.
This would make individuals freer in a negative-freedom based society and also facilitate development as individuals

63
Q

Classical liberalism does not believe in egoistical individualism. T/F?

A

False.

They do believe in egoistical individualism.

64
Q

Why do classical liberals advocate for minimal state intervention for welfare and the like?

A

Expanding the role of the state for paternalistic functions is at the expense of individual liberty and therefore oppressive

65
Q

Why is compulsory welfare oppressive according to classical liberals?

A

Compulsory welfare states require taxation.

People might not need the welfare, but they must pay the taxation which is oppressive

66
Q

Who is known as the transitional liberal?

A

John Stuart Mill

67
Q

Why is John Stuart Mill a transitional liberal?

A

His later ideas advocated aspects of developmental individualism (universal education for an example)

68
Q

How can modern liberalism be seen relative to classical liberalism?

A

Modern liberalism is both contradiction and continuation of classical liberalism

69
Q

Which key thinkers are most associated with modern liberalism?

A

T.H. Green
John Rawls

70
Q

How do modern liberals argue that people can be self-reliant?

A

They require a hand up from the state for everyone to achieve this goal

71
Q

Why do modern liberals take issue with classical liberalism’s negative freedom?

A

The lack of state assistance only compounds the problems of economic and social disadvantage

72
Q

What do modern liberals think positive freedom will do?

A

‘Level the playing field’.

It should ensure everyone gets close to equality of opportunity and social justice

73
Q

What is the link between neo-liberalism and liberalism?

A

Classical liberals are seen as the predecessors to neo-liberals.

74
Q

Which Conservative Key Thinkers were influenced by classical liberal ideas?

A

Rand and Nozick

75
Q

What is the mechanistic theory of the state?

A

The state is not organic, but created by individuals to serve themselves and their best interests

76
Q

How do classical and modern liberals disagree over the mechanistic theory of the state?

A
  • Classical liberals feel the state should be small and limited to maintaining law and order.
  • Modern liberals feel the state should be larger to create conditions of freedom
77
Q

How did Mill argue on behalf of Negative Freedoms?

A
  • Atrophy
  • Overload
  • Initiative
  • Corruption
78
Q

What were the five ‘giants’ that Beveridge identified in his report?

A
  • Want - Benefits and welfare. The problem of poverty and hunger
  • Ignorance - Free secondary education
  • Disease - Free national health service
  • Squalor - Slum clearance and new public hosuing programme
  • Idleness - Jobs would be created primarily in public sector to set people to work
79
Q

What was the Beveridge report (1942)?

A
  • In 1942, the leading civil servant (and social liberal), Sir William Beveridge, issued ‘The Beveridge Report’.
  • Writing in war time, the government had asked him to identify the main problems in society and how these could be solved after the war
80
Q

Is modern liberalism different to classical liberalism? (Yes)

A
  • Classical liberals fear the state, modern liberals are more willing to use it to promote social justice
  • Classical liberals believe in the most minimal of states. The state as a ‘night watchman’. Modern liberals feel this does nothing to protect the vulnerable
  • Classical liberals believe in unlimited laissez-faire capitalism, modern liberals believe that capitalism needs some government management or intervention if it is to work efficiently
81
Q

Is modern liberalism different to classical liberalism? (No)

A
  • Both traditions want to expand the freedom of the individual
  • Both are anxious about the idea of an over-powerful government
  • Both agree with decentralising power
  • Both wish to protect the rights of the citizen
82
Q

What is the view on human nature according to Locke?

A

Humans are guided by self-interest but are concerned for others

83
Q

What is the view on human nature according to Wollstonecraft?

A

Both men and women are capable of rational thought

84
Q

What is the view on human nature according to J.S. Mill?

A

Human nature is rational but not fixed.

Capable of progressing to higher levels.

84
Q

What is the view on human nature according to Rawls?

A

Humans can be selfish.

However, they are sympathetic to those less fortunate than them.

85
Q

What is the view on human nature according to Friedan?

A

Culture has evolved to where human nature is patriarchal and discriminatory.

86
Q

What is the view on the state according to Locke?

A

State should only govern by consent

87
Q

What is the view on the state according to Wollstonecraft?

A

Monarchical states should be replaced by republics that entrench women’s rights.

88
Q

What is the view on the state according to J.S. Mill?

A

The state should be representative and mindful of minority rights.

89
Q

What is the view on the state according to Rawls?

A

Enabling states will assist developmental individualism via public spend.

90
Q

What is the view on the state according to Friedan?

A

The state should intervene in the public sphere to prevent female discrimination

91
Q

What is the view on society according to Locke?

A

Natural laws and rights predate the state.

92
Q

What is the view on society according to Wollstonecraft?

A

Society ‘infantilised’ women which inhibited female individualism.

93
Q

What is the view on society according to J.S. Mill?

A

Individuality should coexist with tolerance and self-improvement.

94
Q

What is the view on society according to Rawls?

A

‘Veil of ignorance’ argued that individuals would choose a society that offered opportunities for the less fortunate.

95
Q

What is the view on society according to Friedan?

A

Society is patriarchal and needs reformation.

96
Q

What is the view on the economy according to Locke?

A

Private property is a natural right.

The state should arbritrate between individuals competing for trade

97
Q

What is the view on the economy according to Wollstonecraft?

A

Believed that society was wasting its assets because it kept women in the role of ‘convenient domestic slaves’, and denied them economic independence

98
Q

What is the view on the economy according to J.S. Mill?

A
  • “The science which treats of the production and distribution of wealth, so far as they depend upon the laws of human nature”
  • Defined in his essay On the Definition of Political Economy
99
Q

What is the view on the economy according to Rawls?

A

He’s not known for providing details specifically on the economy
However, based on his work ‘A Theory of justice (1971)’, his view was that he advocated for a society where economic inequalities are arranged to benefit the least advantaged

100
Q

What is the view on the economy according to Friedan?

A
  • While she acknowledged economic factors as part of the broader context, her emphasis was on the social and cultural aspects of women’s experiences.
  • Friedan’s perspective was more sociocultural than strictly economic in nature.
101
Q

What were Locke’s main ideas?

A
  • Society, state and government are based on a voluntary agreement or contract
  • Government should be limited and based on consent from below
102
Q

What were Mill’s ideas?

A
  • Individuals should be free to do anything except harm other individuals
  • It is important to tolerate behaviour or ideas that are different from ones own
103
Q

What was Wollstonecraft’s main ideas?

A
  • Women are rational, independent beings capable of reason
  • In order to be free, women should enjoy full civil liberties and the opportunity to pursue a career
104
Q

What were Friedan’s main ideas?

A
  • Women are as capable as men and oppressive laws and social views must be rejected
  • Women are held back from fulfilling their potential by unfair ideas about the kind of employment they can take up
105
Q

What were Rawls main ideas?

A
  • Society must be just and guarantee each citizen a life worth living
  • A fair society is one in which the difference in outcomes for the richest and the poorest is kept to a minimum
106
Q

Who are the 5 liberalist thinkers?

A
  • John Locke (1632-1704)
  • Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-97)
  • John Stuart Mill (1806-73)
  • John Rawls (1921-2002)
  • Betty Friedan (1921-2006)

A Level Politics - Component 1 (7 decks)

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