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SLE132 Biology: Form And Function > 7. Animal Tissue, Reproduction And Development > Flashcards

7. Animal Tissue, Reproduction And Development Flashcards

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1
Q

What is a fusiform shape?

A

A spindle-like shape that tapers at both ends.
The body shape of the fur seal is fusiform. Skeletal muscle cells are fusiform.

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2
Q

Diversity in animal anatomy is due to…?

A
  1. Natural selection.
  2. Adaption.
  3. Sexual reproduction ensuring mixing of DNA.
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3
Q

What is divergent evolution?

A

A common ancestor over time gives rise to different species with distinct features.

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4
Q

What is convergent evolution?

A

Different species independently evolve similar features due to having a similar environment.

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5
Q

What are homologue structures?

A

Structures that share a similar common ancestor despite potentially serving different functions in different species.

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6
Q

What are analogue structures?

A

Structures that serve a similar function but do not share a common evolutionary origin.

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7
Q

Why can hydras perform gas exchange directly?

A

They are only two cells thick, with each cell in direct contact with its environment.

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8
Q

Why can’t many multicellular organisms diffuse with their environment?

A

Many multicellular organisms have complex internal structure and a low surface area to volume ratio (SA:V ratio).

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9
Q

How do multicellular organisms increase surface area for gas exchange?

A

The cells in multicellular organisms have evolved to have folded or branched surfaces located in a protected and moist environment.

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10
Q

What hydrates the space between cells?

A

Interstitial fluid.

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11
Q

What are the 4 main types of animal tissues?

A
  1. Epithelial tissue.
  2. Connective tissue.
  3. Muscular tissue.
  4. Nervous tissue.
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12
Q

What are epithelial tissues?

A

Tightly packed cells that line organs, body cavities, and external surfaces.
E.g. skin.

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13
Q

What are connective tissues?

A

Tissues that bind and support other tissues with a sparse population of cells scattered through an extracellular matrix.
E.g. cartilage of the knee.

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14
Q

What are muscular tissues?

A

Tissues comprised of long cells that can contract on their own or when stimulated by nerve impulses.
E.g. biceps muscle.

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15
Q

What are nervous tissues?

A

Tissues comprised of neurons and support cells.

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16
Q

What are the 3 shapes of epithelial cells?

A
  1. Squamous.
  2. Cuboidal.
  3. Columnar.
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17
Q

What are squamous cells?

A

Egg-shaped, thin cells with a flattened centrally located nuclei parallel to the cell surface.
Involved in diffusion - well suited to fluid and gas exchange.

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18
Q

What are cuboidal cells?

A

Cells that are approximately equal in height, length, and width, with nuclei that are normally spherical and centrally located.
Involved in secretion or protection.

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19
Q

What are columnar cells?

A

Tall column shaped cells with an ovoid basallly located nucleus.
Involved in absorption and secretion - well suited to protecting the underlying tissue.

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20
Q

What type of columnar cells are involved in absorption?

A

Simple columnar epithelial cells.

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21
Q

What type of columnar cells are involved in secretion?

A

Goblet cells.

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22
Q

What is simple epithelium?

A

A single layer of closely packed epithelial cells that form a lining on various surfaces and cavities in the body.

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23
Q

What is stratified epithelium?

A

Multiple layers of epithelial cells, with only the bottom layer touching the basement membrane.
The apical surface often faces the lumen.

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24
Q

What is the lumen?

A

The internal cavity of a tubular structure.
Mainly used to transport gases, fluids, nutrients, and waste around the body.
E.g. the lumen of the aorta, the lumen of the intestines, or the lumen of the arteries.

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25
Q

What is pseudostratified epithelium?

A

A single layer of epithelial cells that appear to be multiple layers of epithelium, but all cells reach the basement membrane.

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26
Q

What type of cells line the human respiratory tract?

A

Pseudostratified columnar cells with interspersed mucous secreting goblet cells.

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27
Q

What is ciliated epithelium?

A

Epithelial cells with hair-like structures (cilia) on their surface.

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28
Q

What is non-ciliated epithelium?

A

Epithelial cells that lack cilia and function in absorption, secretion, or protection.

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29
Q

What is polarised epithelium?

A

Individual cells that have a specialised apical surface open to the internal environment and a basal surface housed inside the organ.
All typical epithelial cells are polarised.

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30
Q

What are the 3 types of connective tissue fibres?

A
  1. Collagenous fibres.
  2. Reticular fibres.
  3. Elastic fibres.
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31
Q

What do collagenous fibres do?

A

Provide strength, structure, support, and flexibility.

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32
Q

What do reticular fibres do?

A

Join connective tissues to other adjacent tissues.

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33
Q

What do elastic fibres do?

A

Make tissues more elastic.

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34
Q

Which type of connective tissue fibre is highly organised?

A

Collagenous fibres.

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35
Q

Which type of connective tissue fibre forms mesh networks?

A

Reticular fibres.

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36
Q

What are 6 types of connective tissues?

A
  1. Loose connective tissue.
  2. Dense/ fibrous connective tissue.
  3. Adipose tissue.
  4. Blood tissue.
  5. Bone tissue.
  6. Cartilage tissue.
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37
Q

What is loose connective tissue?

A

The most common type of connective tissue, characterised by loosely woven collagen fibres.
Binds epithelia to underlying tissues and holds organs in place.

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38
Q

What is dense connective tissue?

A

Also known as fibrous connective tissue.
Characterised by densely packed collagenous fibres.
Includes ligaments and tendons.

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39
Q

What are the 2 types of dense connective tissue?

A
  1. Dense regular connective tissue.
  2. Dense irregular connective tissue.
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40
Q

What are adipocytes?

A

Cells that produce and store fat.

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41
Q

What is adipose connective tissue?

A

A martix with adipocytes throughout, specialised for fat storage.

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42
Q

What is blood connective tissue?

A

Cells (erythrocytes, lymphocytes, and platelets) suspended in an extracellular fluid called plasma.

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43
Q

What is bone connective tissue?

A

A dense and rigid tissue composed of a matrix strengthened by the deposition of salts such as calcium carbonate and calcium phosphate.
Provides rigid support and is the main tissue of adult vertebrates.

44
Q

What is cartilage connective tissue?

A

A tissue characterised by collagenous fibres suspended in a chondroitin sulphate matrix.
Found in discs between vertebrae and bone joints, as well as in areas of active growth.

45
Q

What is the chondroitin sulphate matrix?

A

A martix containing fluid-filled spaces called lacunae with collections of chondrocytes (cells responsible for secreting the chondroitin sulphate and collagen in which they are embedded) within.

46
Q

Which tissue often surrounds cartilage?

A

Adipose tissue.
It provides padding and lubrication.

47
Q

What are the 3 types of muscle tissue?

A
  1. Skeletal muscle.
  2. Cardiac muscle.
  3. Smooth muscle (also known as visceral muscle)
48
Q

What is the purpose of muscle, and what are 2 important muscular proteins?

A

Muscles provide support and are responsible for movement via contractions of the filamentous proteins actin and myosin within the tissue.

49
Q

What are 5 characteristics of skeletal muscle?

A
  1. Voluntary (movement controlled by somatic nervous system).
  2. Striated.
  3. Multi-nucleated. Peripherally located.
  4. Elongated.
  5. Attached to the bones via tendons.
    Formed by fusion of multiple cells during development
50
Q

What causes striations?

A

The repeated arrangement of contractile units called sacraments.

51
Q

What are 5 characteristics of cardiac muscle?

A
  1. Involuntary (Associated with heartbeat and controlled by automatic nervous system).
  2. Striated.
  3. Mono-nucleated.
  4. Branched fibres connected by intercalated disks.
  5. Found exclusively on the heart.
52
Q

What are 5 characteristics of smooth muscle?

A
  1. Involuntary (associated with contractions and controlled by the automatic nervous system).
  2. Non-striated. (Lacks sacromeres).
  3. Mono-nucleated.
  4. Spindle-shaped cells.
  5. Arranged in either longitudinal or circular arrangement around organs.
53
Q

What causes peristaltic movement?

A

Alternating contractions of smooth muscle layers.

54
Q

What is peristalsis?

A

The automatic wave-like movement of the muscles that line the GI tract, causing food to move through the digestive system.

55
Q

What are neurons?

A

The ‘base’ cells of the nervous system that transmit electrical impulses as signals via axons to other neurons, muscles, or cells.

56
Q

How do neurons receive signals from other neurons?

A

Through their dendrites.

57
Q

What is another name for the cell body of a neuron?

A

The soma.

58
Q

What insulates the neurons axon?

A

The mylein sheath.

59
Q

What are the nodes of Ranivier?

A

The gaps in the mylein sheath along the nueron’s axon.

60
Q

What are glial cells?

A

Cells that act as supports to neurons, providing protection nourishment or signal mediation.

61
Q

What is an oligodendrocyte?

A

A glial cell in the CNS that produces the mylein sheath for neurons.

62
Q

What are the 6 levels of body organisation?

A
  1. Atoms and molecules.
  2. Cells.
  3. Tissues.
  4. Organs.
  5. Organ systems.
  6. Organism.
63
Q

Which systems coordinate animal responses to stimuli?

A
  1. The nervous system.
  2. The endocrine system.
64
Q

What does the endocrine system do?

A
  • Releases hormones into the bloodstream, which carries them to all locations in the body.
  • Only cells with the correct receptor will respond to hormones.
  • Release of hormones is done in seconds, with effects lasting minutes or hours.
  • Involved in growth, development, reproduction, metabolism, and digestion.
65
Q

What does the nervous system do?

A
  • Transmits signals via the neuron pathway made up of axons.
  • Signals are fast, taking a fraction of a second to reach the target.
  • Signals along an axon use electrical voltage.
  • Signals from one axon to a dendrites are done by short range chemicals.
  • Involves in rapid movement and reflexes.
66
Q

What are the types of animal reproduction?

A
  1. Sexual (fusion of gametes from 2 parents).
  2. Asexual (clone from single parent).
67
Q

What are the 4 types of asexual reproduction?

A
  1. Fission.
  2. Budding.
  3. Fragmentation.
  4. Parthenogenesis.
68
Q

What is fission reproduction?

A

A single organism splitting into two or more genetically identical individuals.
E.g. corals, flatworms.

69
Q

What is budding reproduction?

A

A new individual growing as an outgrowth from the body of an existing organism.
E.g. hydras.

70
Q

What is parthenogenesis?

A

Offspring developing from unfertilised eggs, resulting in genetically identical individuals.
E.g. bees.

71
Q

What is hermaphrodism?

A

Individuals having both male and female reproductive organs, allowing them to produce both eggs and sperm. Capable of either self-fertilisation or mating with another individual.
E.g. snails, earthworms.

72
Q

What are 3 animal mating strategies?

A
  1. Promiscuous mating.
  2. Monogamous mating.
  3. Polygamous mating.
73
Q

What is promiscuous mating?

A

Individuals of a species having multiple sexual partners without forming strong or long-term pair-bonds.

74
Q

What is monogamous mating?

A

A long-term mating partnership of one male with one female.
Both sexes often look alike.

75
Q

What is polygamous mating?

A

An individual of one sex mating with several of the opposite sex.

76
Q

What are the 2 forms of polygamous mating?

A
  1. Polygyny - a single male and multiple females.
  2. Polyandry - a single female and multiple males.
77
Q

What is sexual dimorphism?

A

The difference in appearance between males and females.
The sex that attracts multiple partners is typically larger and showier.

78
Q

What is fertilisation?

A

The combining of male and female gametes to form a zygote.

79
Q

What are the 2 main fertilisation strategies?

A
  1. External fertilisation. Eggs released into the environment to be fertilised there. Mainly aquatic animals.
  2. Internal fertilisation. Fertilisation occurs within the female’s reproductive tract. Mainly terrestrial animals.
80
Q

What is synchronous spawning?

A

Numerous individuals simultaneously releasing gametes to further increase chances of external fertilisation.

81
Q

What are the 3 primary types of internal fertilisation?

A
  1. Viviparity.
  2. Oviparity.
  3. Ovovivparity.
82
Q

What is viviparity?

A

Developing offspring being nurtured internally, with the embryo receiving nourishment through a placenta.

83
Q

What is oviparity?

A

Fertilised eggs developing outside the parent’s body.

84
Q

What is ovoviviparity?

A

Fertilised eggs develop internally until hatching.
There is no nourishment from gas exchange with parent and no placenta.

85
Q

What is cleavage?

A

The succession of rapid cell divisions without significant growth during early embryonic development that converts a zygote into a ball of cells called a blastula.

86
Q

What is a blastula?

A

A hollow ball of cells that marks the end of the cleavage stage during embryo development in animals.

87
Q

What are the 4 common steps of early animal development?

A
  1. Fertilisation.
  2. Cleavage.
  3. Gastrulation.
  4. Organogenesis.
88
Q

What is organogenesis?

A

Embryonic tissues giving rise to organs in specific locations.

89
Q

What is exocytosis?

A

The active transport cellular secretion of biological molecules by the fusion of vesicles with the plasma membrane.
Results in the discharge of vesicle content into the extracellular space.

90
Q

What is an acrosome?

A

A unique membrane organelle located over the anterior part of the sperm nucleus.
Contains hydrolytic enzymes and other proteins that help the sperm reach the egg.

91
Q

What is an acrosomal reaction?

A

The discharge of hydrolytic enzymes from the acrosome.

92
Q

What is the function of hydrolytic enzymes?

A

They break down protein, lipids, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and fat molecules into their simplest units.

93
Q

What are enzymes?

A

Macromolecules that serve as catalysts.

94
Q

What are catalysts?

A

Chemical agents that increase the rate of a reaction without being consumed.

95
Q

What is polyspermy?

A

The fertilisation of an egg by more than one sperm.

96
Q

What is an oocyte?

A

An immature egg.

97
Q

What is a cortical reaction?

A

The reaction that occurs when a sperm unites with the egg’s plasma membrane - preventing other sperm from binding to and entering the egg.

98
Q

What are cortical granules?

A

Regulatory secretory organelles found within oocytes and associated with polyspermy prevention after fertilisation.
Found in all mammals, many vertebrates, and some invertebrates.

99
Q

Which ions harden the egg’s zone pellucida, preventing polyspermy?

A

Calcium ions.

100
Q

What is the blastopore?

A

The opening to the inner cavity of a gastrula.
Formed during gastrulation.

101
Q

What is the blastocoel?

A

A fluid-filled cavity located in the animal hemisphere of a blastula.

102
Q

What 2 hemispheres are present in a blastula?

A
  1. The animal hemisphere/pole.
  2. The vegetal hemisphere/pole.
103
Q

What is the vegetal hemisphere of a developing embryo characterised by?

A

Slower cell division than the animal hemisphere.
Important for providing nutrients and forming the yolk mass.

104
Q

What is another name for the gastrocoel?

A

The archenteron, or the primitive gut.

105
Q

What is the chondroitin sulphate matrix surrounded by?

A

A thin, fibrous perichondrium - a highly vascularised layer responsible for nutrient supply to the matrix.

106
Q

What are the 4 steps of fertilisation?
(prevents polyspermy)

A
  1. Sperm makes contact with egg.
  2. Acrosome reacts with zone of pellucida, then with pervilleine space - causing the plasma membranes of the sperm and oocyte to fuse.
  3. Sperm nucleus (containing DNA) enters egg.
  4. Corticol granules fuse with egg plasma membrane and release calcium ions, which harden the egg’s zone of pellucida, preventing polyspermy.

SLE132 Biology: Form And Function (11 decks)

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