6B - Memory (Psych) Flashcards
Describe the relationship of memory and attention.
Attention and memory are seen to go hand in hand. They utilize the same conceptual ideas in which all sensory information is taken in at a sensory register and because it is then filtered and passed onto creating meaning and a short term capacitor and eventually it passes on to higher cognitive functions. These three general steps are seen in terms of both memory and attention, however, they differ in the details. In general, it is thought that in order for an indv to create memories, short and maybe long term, an indv has to be paying attention to the information
The information processing model
A Is an attention model that explains how memory is formed and stored
B. Is a memory model that explains how memory is formed and stored
C. Is an attention model that explains how information is assigned meaning and how attention shifts or holds
D. Is a memory model that explains how information is assigned meaning and how attention shifts or holds
B. Is a memory model that explains how memory is formed and stored
Attention models: Brentbroad’s, Deustch & Deustch, and Triesman’s models do not explain how memories are formed, rather it explains how information is assigned meaning and how attention shifts or holds (look at Flashcards Psychoactive Drugs for dets) Though the attention and memory models focus on the same 3 broad categories of sensory registers, info processing, higher cognitive functions
Though there are 5 senses, only 2 are best studied. Explain how these two sensory information are defined in the information processing model.
Vision and Audition are the two best studied sense in psych. All information of these two are temporarily stored under the sensory register (sensory memory) as Iconic (Visual) and Echoic (Auditory) where they await to be processed and integrated with other senses to have more meaning
Information stored in Iconic and Echoic Memory lasts … A half a second, 3 - 4 seconds B 3 - 4 seconds, half a second C 1 - 2 seconds, 3 - 4 seconds D 3 - 4 seconds, 1 - 2 seconds
A half a second, 3 - 4 seconds, Though visual memory is so vivid and detailed, it is stored in the sensory register for half a second only and while auditory is stored for 3 - 4 seconds. If these information are not assigned meaning and attention, then the stimuli is simply lost
Contrast the differences in capacitance between sensory memory and working memory
While sensory memory stores information based on time, working memory stores information based on quantity: 7 +/- 2 This quantity is based on how hard the information stored in this memory is and how old a person is [note: according to Duke, ognitive psychologists divide memory into the first 15-30 seconds, and they call this short-term memory, and alllllll the rest of memory that lasts beyond 30 seconds is long-term memory]
Angelie is watching a show, Ladybug and Cat Noir. Juan asks her what she is seeing right now as he is curious, however she looks up and says she doesn’t know. In confusion, he looks at you with the most startled face. What should have occurred after she recreated iconic memory?
If her brain was attending to the show, the iconic memory should’ve been processed and been transferred into short term memory as visual spatial information onto her visuo-spatial sketchpad [note: this is based off of the information processing model]
As you are studying for the MCAT, you are typing as fast as your hands can as you listen to a lecture. Knowing that you are falling behind, you pause the video and still continue to type the information you heard. What allows you to recall this? What occurs to this information once it is passed on from the sensory register?
Your echoic memory can last 3 - 4 seconds, allowing you to recall the information briefly before forgetting it. Once this information is passed from the sensory register to the working memory, the information is processed in the phonological loop as verbal information [note: this is based off of the information processing model]
Verbal information in short term memory is defined by
Verbal information here means any words AND numbers of both iconic and echoic memory [note: this is based off of the information processing model]
Much similarly like the attention models, what is the next step in memory processing after the information has been processed by the phonological loop or visuo-spatial sketchpad?
This information is then either (1) Transferred to the long term memory loop or (2) informationS are processed by the central executive and integrated into a representation of the information and gets stored in to the episodic buffer (the connector from short term memory to long term memory)
As information comes from short term memory through the episodic buffer, what happens to these types of information?
They are consolidated as explicit or implicit memory
Alex is teaching Billy how to ride a hoverboard he got for his birthday. As Alex is talking, he steps onto the hoverboard to demonstrate how Billy should lean to induce the board to accelerate. What type of memory is Alex drawing from in order to show Billy?
Alex is utilizing his procedural long term memories he learned when he first rode a board with Catalina. This type of memory is an implicit (nondeclarative) that come switch practice and involves physical movements
After Juan broke the hanger in the bathroom, you force him to watch a video of how to hang a nail on the wall. After some videos, you watch him perform these movements. How is he able to achieve this flawless action even though he has never done so before?
Due to priming under implicit long term memory, he was utilizing his experience of watching others perform the action to correctly commit to the actions himself
As you are driving, Angelie is telling a horrendous story about what she saw when she was with mom. She claims that she and mom there were two double rainbows in the sky after a heavy rain and how there was a tree in the lake. What type of memory is she relying on?
Angelie is relying on episodic memory, a type of declarative/explicit memory which consolidates memories about an event.
You recall taking many multiplication tests back in 3rd grade. Back then, you didn’t quite understand the meaning of how multiplications came about, but you were able to recall each one over and over again until the teacher moved you onto long division. What allowed this to be possible?
Your semantic, explicit memory allowed you to recall facts and memories involved with words
Mnemonic to remembering explicit vs implicit memory
“Ex”plicit -> Explain or Declare. Therefore Explicit memory is declarative memory and implicit memory has to be nondeclarative
In the information processing model, which of the following terms best describes the initial sight of blood or seeing a white coat that is easily forgotten? A Echoic Memory B Sensory Memory C. Working Memory D Iconic Memory
D. Iconic memory, which is a particular type of visual sensory memory that lasts less than half a second
Describes how sensory memory can influence your attention based on the information processing model?
Then brain decides which portion of the information from these sensory memory is important to give selective attention - only going to see portions of the things you saw and these parts are going to end up in the short term memory
What is the one requirement needed in order to transfer working memory to long term memory?
Short term/working memory MUST BE PRACTICED. With practice, these information is transferred into long term and if not it becomes lost
You are reading your Kaplan books, and happen upon a paragraph about memory, where the author is using declarative and explicit memory. Define the difference between explicit and declarative memory.
Some psychologists refer to declarative memory as a type of explicit memory, therefore these include explicit and semantic memory. However, to tease the small details out, Procedural and declarative memories are the what of memory, implicit and explicit memories are the how.(science.org) Explicit memories then are those that you consciously remember. They are used interchangeably many times
Define long term memory in terms of consciousness.
Explicit memory is often thought of as consciously remembered information while implicit are the unconscious memories such as procedures or recall due to priming
It’s Valentine’s day and Juan forgot about it again. Feeling your frustration, he states that he’s bad with memory and can’t seem to remember anything even though you reminded him about it 2 weeks ago. What does he not consciously commit to once he receives the information and the information has entered into his short term memory.
While the information is processed and stored in his short term memory under the episodic buffer, he did not commit to encoding the information into long term memory. This requires conscious effort and processing of the information, which transfers the information from temporal to long term memory
Finally Juan said he’ll commit to trying to remember things. You ask him to remember to go buy his mom a Valentine’s gift as the two of you will be over at their house that weekend. As you walk away, you hear him reciting it over and over to himself. What is he doing? What is the ultimate result?
He’s committing to the rote rehearsal, which is an encoding technique to remembering short term information. Though many people commit to this, studies have shown this is the least effective method as this process does not require processing (note: repeating information is not processing). Therefore he ultimately will forget
Juan asks you if we need anything for the house while he is at Walmart. You text him the following list: bananas, oranges, blueberries, bread, rice, chicken, peanuts, baking soda, flour, eggs, butter. Later he comes home and says his phone died after he read the list so he only got 2 things. “You should chunk the items next time” you say. What do you mean by that?
You are asking him to process the information by organizing the information into recognizable categories that these objects belong to. In this manner, it will help him better remember [Successful techniques involve tying in the new information to previously learned information]
Note: this is sometimes known as clustering
Compare and contrast method of loci from peg word systems. How are they different? How are they similar?
Both are methods of encoding information under the category of mnemonics used mainly to remember order. However they differ by the different types of anchors one uses to remember a sequence of events. The peg word system starts with a verbal anchor and the method of loci is involved with location
As you and your lab partner in anatomy are attempting to create acronyms for the complex structures of the body, you two fall into a debate. She states that mnemonics is another word for acronyms, hence why so many people use it this class. Your response is
No. acronyms are a type of mnemonic. Mnemonics actually have many different types of strategies that fall under it: Pegword system, method of loci, and imagery as well. [Note: Mnemonics - memory aids that you link what you’re trying to learn into previously existing easier to remember information that’s probably already in long term memory]
As Juan is receiving a haircut from Victor, you start to snoop around in his room. You find a notebook of the same grocery list you sent him a few weeks back and see the following: 1 is a gun. Banana is a gun shape. Two is a shoe, shoe is round shape like orange. That patterns of memorization is his notations following?
He is integrating both imagery (visual images) and pegword (a mnemonic device a verbal anchors, therefore you start with words that rhyme with the number). [Note: Integration allows increase in likelihood that you’ll remember the info]
As you are creating questions to quiz yourself later on the MCAT, you fill each question about your own personal life. What are you committing to in this practice?
You are self-referencing, an encoding method in which you incorporate new ideas to you personally. This technique requires a great deal of processing and increases the likelihood that you’ll be able to retain the information
You’re observing a new intern today and you ask them to study as if they will be preparing to teach to the whole cohort. How is the idea of preparing to teach related to encoding information?
This method of study falls under the category of self referencing, where the indv will organize they topics and spend more time understanding the information. This addition effort put into the work increases the likelihood someone will be remembering the information at hand
Though there are many methods of encoding during studying to reinforce information into long term memory, how can you continue to encode this information after studying? Why?
While it is important to engage in good studying habits to encode information for long term memory, it is as important to commit to spacing, which is the idea of studying in intervals rather than in one long session. The act of stopping prevents you from being under the impression that you fully understand the subject. As you restart to study again, you find that it is harder to pick up. This method shows you what you lack in knowledge.
During the process of encoding, one is able to commit the information under a few types of processing. Which is the deepest level of encoding? A Structural B Phonetic C Semantic D. Episodic
C. Semantic - this is the deepest level of encoding an information can be processed in and has the highest probability of recall at a later date.
D. is a made up term and not part of the encoding process. It is a memory
You have started volunteering at a Higher Education Pursuit program for inner city children and want them to start learning new vocabularies. Compare the different types of questions you would ask if you wanted them to have a structural process of encoding to phonetic process of encoding.
Both of these processes are forms of changing the actual information into useful forms (called encoding) and center around verbal information. Structural encoding is the shallowest type of encoding process. It focuses on the structure of the verbal information at hand, therefore you would ask for different types of letters a word has. Phonetic encoding deals with how the word sounds, therefore you should ask them to rhyme the word (accessdl.state.al.us)
Because visual and auditory sensories are the most studied two sensations of the body, many terms developed in terms of memory are referenced to the examples of them only. Describe what semantic encoding of verbal information is.
Semantic encoding focuses on the meaning verbal information (remember these can be either words or numbers received via visual and auditory pathways) This type of encoding requires a deeper level of processing than structural or phonemic encoding and usually results in better memory/recall (accessdl.state.al.us)
As Alex is learning new vocabulary in his speech class, he confesses that it is very hard for him to remember. You tell him that with practice he can eventually memorize them all. What is the first step thing that must be done to working memory in order to create long term memories
Encoding is the first step to create long term memories. Therefore he must engage in effortful tasks during his studies, such as peg word systems or method of loci
After a few days of practicing, Alex still has not improved his memorization of his new vocabulary list. After talking to mom, mom confesses that Alex really doesn’t enjoy school and is seen daydreaming during his zoom meetings, as well as playing in front of the camera instead of listening. You also notice that he doesn’t sleep until very late and wakes up very early. What is another factor in hindering his inability to remember his vocab?
Sleep deprivation. Sleep is very important in consolidating (making a memory stronger), establishing and stabilizing a memory. Studies have shown that sleep deprivation in fact can negatively affect our ability to remember
As you are sitting at your desk studying, you find yourself thinking about the time when you first studied for the MCAT and how you loved listening to music while you studied. You remember one song in particular that you played on repeat for a month and you decide to turn it on. How was this an example of a successful retrieval?
Successful retrievals depend on your ability to use the cues that are present around you and recognize the association between the cues present at encoding and the cues present at retrieval. At retrieval, the cue that signaled the memory was your studying, which was the same cue encoded when you first hear the song.
Retrieval is a process under what portion of psychology?
It is a portion of memories, specifically a process seen during the recalling of long term memories
In the process of retrieving a memory, your brain can associate these memories into cues that were in place during the time of encoding. List these different types of retrieval cues out
Priming cues, Contextual cues, and State dependent cues
At one point in elementary school you were reading Watership Down, a novel about rabbits. During recess, as you hung out with your friend by the bathroom, you read instead of pay attention to the conversation. You raised your head as you heard someone say hair and immediately associated this to the animal. What type of cue was this word? What just occurred in your brain?
Because of your exposure to the novel, you have been primed and prepared your brain to associate the word hair to hare/rabbit. This occurs at an unconscious level (implicit/nondeclarative memory)
Everyday after O Chem, you see a person remain in their seat and begin to study rather than leave like everyone in the class. Come test day, you see him sit in the same chair again. Once midterm season ended, Professor Leivens announces that he has the highest score of anyone in the class. What was he practicing as he studied?
This student was engaging in encoding contextual cues into his long term memory. Studies have shown that those who study in the same environment as when they are taking an exam perform higher because they are able to retrieve environmental cues that were encoded with their information process.
Just learning about contextual cues, you rush to see if you are able to study in an environment similar to the MCAT set up in order to maximize your score. After days of research you find that you are unable to access the location. What should you do in order to still include some sort of contextual cues into your study?
You should study in multiple places. These different places will provide different cues for retrieval. So that when you go to take test in some other location you will have not just one set of cues, but multiple
After not hearing from Stephanie for so long, you decide to message her. You find that she is not doing so good mentally and now that she is living alone, she feels more sad than ever because it is reminding her of how lonely she was years ago. How is her current situation a classic example of state dependent retrieval cues?
Mood is often a state - dependent cue. Feeling sadness can trigger her to remember other times when she was just as sad or worse. Therefore her sadness is a cue she has encoded into a painful memory which will ultimately lead to increasing her state of depression.
Wanting to study for the MCAT, you sit in your chair. However, emotionally you’re feeling upset from the argument you and Juan had last night. Your mind starts wandering to other times when you both have had very intense moments in your relationship. What should you do to avoid the cycle of thinking in order to focus on the task at hand?
Your mood is causing you to remember other memories you have stored as long term memory. So while you cannot erase these memories that are causing you to enter into a cycle, you should remove the stimuli that are causing the initial memory. Therefore enlighten your mood by doing things you enjoy or leaving the environment where you associate the bad memory
From hardest to easiest in recalling, list the types of recall in order
A Free recall, Cued Recall, and Recognition Recall
B Cued Recall, Recognition recall, and Free recall
C Recognition Recall, Free Recall, and Cued Recall
D Free Recall, Recognition Recall, and Cued Recall
A. Free recall, Cued Recall, and Recognition Recall. The more clues you have, the increase in probability of retrieving the information from long term memory
True or False: Only long term memory can be retrieved for later use
False, according to course.lumenlearning, both short and long term memory can be retrieved for later use
In order to go to sleep, Angelie and Alex are demanding a bed time story and now you have to produce one for them. After the story ends, Juan asks what they remembered, but both can only remember how it starts and how it finishes. They must have dozed off in the middle, Juan concludes. What are they currently demonstrating in this retrieval process? Why can’t they seem to remember any of the middle portion?
Both are experiencing the primacy and recency effect, in which they only remember the first and last information. The decrease in remembering is caused by the primacy and recency to have an increased probability of being remembered
What are some of the cons when retrieving old memories?
In retrieving the memory, we change it a little bit each time. These changes to memory are affected by our mood, goals, environment, etc
Changing memory can lead to what?
Alterations can also be a result of gaps in memories, in which the brain fills the gaps in with something logical and desirable
After watching a video about Ted Bundy, you go on and snoop the internet about this man. You read an article from a man, he claimed that he was a target of Ted Bundy as well and he barely escaped. After reading this, you’re convinced that anyone young was a target of Bundy. However, from the document, they stated that he targeted young, pretty women. What error in memory construction are you experiencing?
Misinformation effect - can occur after we encode something but before we try to retrieve it ourselves. This effect can be seen at encoding AND seen at recall. This causes us to misidentify the information. Misleading information is incorrect information given to an eyewitness following an event
Among the many reasons, why is misleading information to occur in memory construction?
One reason for false or misleading information can have such a strong impact on memory is that people have difficulty with source monitoring. This leads to confusion over whether they’d seen the information
Are there any memories that may be immune to misleading information?
Some think that emotional, vivid memories called flashbulb memories are more likely to be accurate and not changed with retrieval. Both positive or negative can be included in these types of memories. These can change however, but construction is minor.
The phenomenon by which neurons grow and strength A. Neuroplasticity B. Habituation C. Encoding D. Long Term Potentiation
D. The connections between neurons grow and strengthen. - called long term potentiation, LTP. An example is known as synaptic plasticity. LPT is thought to be the physiological mechanism of how learning occurs. Therefore as synapses strengthen, we are able to more easily recall previous experiences and knowledge.
How can long term potentiation occur post synaptically, if there are no changes to the release of receptors?
Repeated stimulation creates a greater post-synaptic even though there are no changes to ntsr release from the pre-synaptic neuron. Therefore the post-synaptic gets better at opening its ion channels and gets better at distributing the graded potentials down the soma to the axon hillock. When this occurs, we say the synaptic strength increases
Describe decay theory.
is a theory that proposes that memory fades due to the mere passage of time. Information is therefore less available for later retrieval as time passes and memory, as well as memory strength, wears away. This causes the neurons of these memory to become harder to stimulate.
Describe the pattern of decay in memory among different individuals.
The pattern of decay seems pretty consistent, even for different types of material. Therefore the initial rate is very high but then it levels off after a period of time.
The replication studies looking at decay theory demonstrated what?
These studies demonstrated that the more integrated the initial learning was, the more stretched out the rate of forgetting is. This is demonstrated in the first studies done by Ebbinghaus.
You learned spanish initially in highschool and then again in college. In college, you had a more integrated learning and this allowed you to grasp more grammar. However, since then, you haven’t used spanish all that much nor have you started classes again. Describe the decay in memory you are experiencing after college.
After learning the language, you’re not immediately forget in the first few days. However, there is a rapid forgetting in the first few years and the forgetting will level off after no use.
Convinced that you’re no longer able to speak spanish because of memory decay, you decide to determine if you truly have no more memory of this information. What can you attempt to do in order to determine if you no longer have this memory anymore?
There are 3 mechanisms that you can attempt to determine if memory is present:
- Retrieval/recall - just because this is not possible or not occurring, this does not mean long term memory is is gone
- Recognition - when you identify information that you have previously learned after encountering it again. It involves a process of comparison.
- Relearning - relearning the topic and quickly learning this topic can demonstrate that they’re learned this information before.
How did Ebbinghaus explain relearning?
He stated that relearning tended to be much faster. This fast relearning meant there is a foundation - he coined this as savings - that was present even though an indv cannot retrieve
This savings is thought to be stored in long term memory
You’re studying electrical currents and feel that you’ve grasped this much better than when you were in undergrad. However, you’re trying to recall fluids, this is another form of current as well, and you’re have a hard time remembering this topic. What type of memory retrieval are you experiencing?
Retroactive Interference - some new piece of learning reaches back and impairs your ability to retrieve something you used to know.
Upon studying for the MCAT, you learn that the Phosphoglucose isomerase changes a 6 carbon ring into a 5 carbon ring. However, when you first learned this you learned that this was done by phosphofructokinase. This mislearning initially has caused you to consistently recall the wrong information today still. What type of memory retrieval are you experiencing?
Proactive interference - the interference that old memories prevent you from learning new information into long term memory
Contrast memory interference from amnesia.
Interference is a disruption of memory because of new information that competes with the information we are trying to recall.
Amnesia is a forgetting process due to brain injury, disease, or age.
A man comes into the ER and is experiencing some confusion. After introducing yourself, you start examining your patient. You order labs and as you are about to finish the initial check up, he asks who you are again. You then go on and order a CSF and MRI and find that his CSF came back positive. His inability to recall is A. Anterograde amnesia B. Proactive interference C. Retrograde amnesia D. Retrograde interference
A. Anterograde amnesia. The disease can cause him to not to be able to recall information after the onset of the disease. Not interference, because no new information is present in the learning process
Aging often affects memory. What types and processes of memory specifically are affected by aging.
Recall, episodic memories, processing speed, and divided attention.
Recall: recognition is stable, but harder for older adults to recall. (this is the ability to recall without cue - free recall)
Episodic Memories - often memories that were formed long ago are stable, but memories that are newly formed becomes more difficult as we age
Processing Speed - harder time outputting a response within a short period of time even if you knew the answer
Divided Attention - increasingly harder to switch attention between tasks and therefore we become more easily distracted
Episodic memories is defined as the ability to recall and mentally re-experience specific episodes from one’s personal past and is contrasted with semantic memory that includes memory for generic, context-free knowledge. What is the caveat about this type of memory with aging.
Episodic Memories - often memories that were formed long ago are stable, but memories that are newly formed becomes more difficult as we age
Aging affects memory on many levels. However, what portions of memory are stable?
Implicit memory - stays the same across the life span. Therefore once you’ve learned to ride a bike/perform a task, the procedure will likely stay with you as you age
Recognition memory - once you learn something, your ability to pick it out of a list remains about the same
What types of memory improve with aging?
Semantic memory - improves until around age 60. Decline after. (therefore older adults have excellent verbal skills and why they are great at crosswords)
Crystallized Intelligence - the ability for indv to use and apply knowledge and experience. This is because the longer you live, the more experiences you have and more knowledge you retain. This can be tested in reading comprehension and analogy tests. Therefore older adults tend to be better than younger adults in these tests
