6B: Making sense of the environment (Part 1) Flashcards
Attention, Cognition, Consciousness, Memory, Language
Divided attention
The ability to focus on multiple stimuli whilst simultaneously
What is divided attention also known as?
Multitasking
In multitasking, each additional task increases…
Cognitive load
Cognitive load
The total amount of mental effort being used in working memory
Attention
Selective concentration on a discrete stimulus while ignoring other perceivable stimuli
Multitasking
The attempt to perform two or more tasks simultaneously
Selective attention
The ability to choose and concentrate on relevant stimuli
Dichotic listening task
Test in which different auditory messages are sent to each ear, used to test selective attention
Information-processing model
The approach to the study of cognitive development of memory
What are the three levels of memory?
- Sensory register
- Short-term memory
- Long-term memory
Sensory register
Ultra-short-term memory that takes in sensory information through five senses (sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch) and holds it for no more than a few seconds
Short term memory
The information that a person is currently thinking about or is aware of. It is also called primary or active memory
Long term memory
The next stage of memory, where informative knowledge is held indefinitely
Egocentrism
The inability to consider or understand a perspective other than one’s own
* Phase where the thought and morality of the child are entirely self-focused
What are the stages of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development?
- Sensorimotor
- Preoperational
- Concrete operational
- Formal operational
Sensorimotor stage
First stage
* From birth to acquisition of language
* Infants progressively construct knowledge and understanding of the world by coordinating experiences with physical ineractions with objects
Preoperational stage
2nd stage
* Learns to speak, years 2-7
* No concrete logic, cannot mentally manipulate information
* Can form stable concept, magical beliefs
* Limited by egocentrism
Concrete operational stage
3rd stage
* Ages 7-11
* Appropriate use of logic
* Elimination of egocentrism
Formal operational stage
4th and final stage
* Age 11-20
* Intelligence demonstrated through logical use of symbols related to abstract concepts
* Hypothetical and deductive reasoning
* Think about abstract concepts
Working memory
A cognitive system with a limited capacity that is responsible for temporarily holding information available for processing
Milestone
An important event in a person’s life or career, in the history of a nation, in the life of some project, etc.
Cognitive development
How children think, explore and figure things out
Authoritative
Using power to govern the development of others
Frontal lobe
The part of the cerebral cortex involved in reasoning, motor control, emotion, and language; contains the motor cortex
Cerebral cortex
The surface of the brain that is associated with our highest mental capabilities
Hippocampus
Part of the brain that is important to memory processing
Amygdala
Associated with the retention of memories
Personality
The combination of charactersitics or qualities that form an individual’s distinctive character
What is essential for the consolidation of both short-term and long-term memories?
Hippocampus
Amygdala
What has been associated with enhanced retention of memory?
Amygdala
What famous case of frontal lobe damage that resulted in personality change is commonly referred to?
Phineas Gage
What are the 2 major domains in problem-solving?
- Mathematical problem solving
- Personal problem solving
Mathematical problem solving
Involves problems capable of being represented by symbols
Personal problem solving
Where some difficulty or barrier is encountered
What are the approaches in problem solving?
- Trial and error
- Algorithm
- Heuristic
Trial and error approach
Try different approaches to see which one works the best
Algorithm approach
Following a set of rules and steps to find the correct approach
Heuristic approach
Using previous experiences to inform their appraoch to problem-solving
What are some barriers to effective problem solving?
- Mental set
- Unnecessary constraint
- Irrelevant information
- Confirmation bias
Mental set
An unconscious tendency to appraoch a problem in a particular way
Mental sets are shaped by…
Past experiences and habits
Functional fixedness
A special type of mindset that occurs when the intended purpose of an object hinders a person’s ability to see its potential other uses
Unnecessary constraint
Causes people to unconsciously place boundaries on the task at hand
Irrelevant information
When information is presented as part of a problem, but which is unrelated or unimportant to that problem and will not help solve iti
Confirmation bias
Exists when a person has a tendency to look for information that supports their idea or approach instead of looking at new information that may contradict their approach or ideas
What are two important types of problem solving in psychology?
- Algorithms
- Heuristics
Heuristic problem solving strategy
A rule of thumb, a strategy, or a mental shortcut that generally works for solving a problem
What are some examples of heuristics?
- Working backwards
- Breaking into series of smaller steps
Algorithm problem solving strategy
A series of sets of steps for solving a problem
Are you guaranteed success in an heuristic problem solving strategy?
No
* It is practical, and sufficient for immediate goal, but not guaranteed success or efficiency
Are you guaranteed a solution in algorithm problem solving?
Yes
* It may not be the most efficient way of solving the problem
* You may not know all the steps required to solve the problem
What type of biases can inform our decision-making process and problem-solving ability?
- Anchoring bias
- Confirmation bias
- Hindsight bias
- Representative bias
- Availability bias
- Belief bias
Anchoring bias
Tendency to focus on one particular piece of information when making decisions or problem-solving
Confirmation bias
Focuses on information that confirms existing beliefs
Hindsight bias
Belief that the event just experienced was predictable
Representative bias
Unintentional stereotyping of someone or something
Availability bias
Decision is based upon either an available precedent or an example that may be faulty
Belief bias
Casting judgement on issues using what someone believes about their conclusion
What is belief perseverance?
The tendency to hold on to pre-existing beliefs, despite being presented with evidence that is contradictory
Intelligence
Capacity of mind, especially to understand principles, truths, facts, or meanings, acquire knowledge, and apply it to practice
* The ability to learn and comprehend
Who first proposed the theory of intelligence?
Francis Galton
Intelligence quotient
An assessment on intelligence
* First used by William Stern
What were the three types of intelligence theorized by Edward Thorndike?
- Social intelligence
- Mechanical intelligence
- Emotional intelligence
Social intelligence
The ability to understand and manage men and women, boys and girls; to act wisely in human relations
Emotional intelligence
The ability, capacity, or skill to perceive, assess, and manage the emotions of oneself, of others, and groups
Why is intelligence complicated to trace to one source?
Influenced by many interacting genes
Polygenic trait
Refers to a trait that is controlled by multiple non-allelic genes
What two main categories of influences shape intelligence?
- Biological
- Sociocultural
What biological influences are there on intelligence?
- Nutrition
- Stress
Shapes intelligence from prenatal stages onward
Act on the physical body
What sociocultural influences are there on intelligence?
- Family unit
Shape the mind and behavior of an individual
What classifies as an intellectual disability socre on a measure of intelligence?
Below 70
What are the most common causes of intellectual disability?
- Fetal alcohol syndrome
- Down syndrome
Consciousness
The state of being aware; awareness of both internal and external stimuli
Wakefulness is characterized by high levels of…
- Sensory awareness
- Thought
- Behavior
Circadian rhythm
A biological rhythm that takes place over a period of about 24 hours
What is one important regulator of sleep-wake cycles?
Melatonin
Pineal gland
An endocrine structure located inside the brain that releases melatonin
* Thought to be involved in the regulation of various biological rhythms and of the immune system during sleep
What are zeitgebers?
External cues
* Light
* Atmospheric conditions
* Termperature
* Social interactions
Overall sleep cycle is comprised of two broad alternating cycles…
- REM (rapid eye movement)
- NREM (non-rapid eye movement)
How many and what stages are in NREM?
3 stages
1. N1
2. N2
3. N3
N1
- Lowered brain activity
- Lowered blood pressure
- Lowered muscle tone
N2
- Decreasing muscular activity
- Conscious awareness of external environment disappears
N3
Deep sleep
* Occurs 30-45 minutes after falling asleep
* Regular breathing, regular slow brain waves
* Many environmental stimuli no longer produce any reactions
REM sleep
Deepest sleep stage
* Partial paralysis
* Vivid dreaming
What is the progression of sleep phases?
- Stage 1
- Stage 2
- Stage 3
- Stage 2
- REM
This cycle occurs about 4-5 times per full night of sleep
REM Rebound
The increase in frequency and depth of REM stage sleep after sleep deprivation
Insomnia
Chronic difficulty in falling asleep and/or maintaining sleep when no other cause is found for these symptoms
Hypersomnolence disorder
Also known as idiopathic hypersomnia
* A disease of likely neurological origin
* Characterized primarily by severe, excessive daytime sleepiness
Narcolepsy
Also known as Excessive daytime sleepiness (EDS)
* Falls asleep spontaneously but unwillingly at inappropriate times
Parasomnias
Category of sleep disorders that involve abnormal
* Movements
* Behaviors
* Emotions
* Perceptions
* Dreams
that occur while
* Falling asleep
* Sleeping
* Between sleep stages
* During arousal from sleep
Who put forward the best-known modern theories of dreaming?
Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung
Freud’s theory describes dreams as having both…
Latent and manifest content
Latent content
Existing or present but concealed or inactive
Manifest content
Obvious to the understanding
Apparent to the mind; easily apprehensible; plain; not obscure or hidden
Threat-simulation theory
Suggests that dreaming should be seen as an ancient biological defense mechanism
* Simulates potentially threatening events
Activation-synthesis theory
Dreams don’t actually mean anything
* Random thoughts and imagery from ourr brain
Continual-activation theory
Dreaming is a result of brain activation and synthesis
* During REM sleep, the unconscicous part of the brain is busy processing procedural memory
Hypnosis
An artificially induced transcelike state in which a person has heightened suggestibility and may experience suppressed memories
Meditation
A practice in which an individual trains the mind and/or induces a mode of consciousness to realize some benefit
* A devotional exercise of, or leading to, contemplation
Depressants
Inhibit neuronal activity
* Inhibit the next neuron from sending impulses by binding to receptor molecules
GABA
Gamma-aminobutyric acid
* Neurotransmitter responsible for regulating (specifically, decreasing) neuronal excitability throughout the nervous system
What are the main types of depressants?
- Alcohol
- Barbiturates
- Benzodiazepines
- Cannabinoids
- Opiods
How do opiods work?
What are examples of opiods?
Work by activating opioid recceptors in the brain
Heroin, morphine etc.
Stimulants
Increase the activity of the central nervous system, the sympathetic nervous system, or both
What are opiod receptors normally activated by?
Endogenous opiods after natural rewarding stimuli (exercise etc.)
* Endorphins
How do stimulants work?
- Facilitate the activity of certain neurotransmitters (norepinephrine, dopamine)
- Block action of specific receptors (receptor antagonism)
- Cause action in other receptors (receptor agonism)
What are examples of well-known stimulants?
- Amphetamines
- MDMA
- NDRIs
- Cocaine
- Caffeine
- Nicotine
Hallucinogens
Drugs that alter sensory input to the brain
What categories are hallucinogens divided into?
- Psychedelics
- Dissociatives
- Deliriants
Psychedelics
Work by interacting with serotonin receptors in the brain
* Produce a state of empathetic well-being and visual distortion
Dissociatives
Work by blocking or altering sensory perception
Deliriants
Considered “true hallucinogens” as the visuals they produce are hard or impossible to distinguish from reality
Common hallucinogens
- MDMA
- PCP
- LSD
Serotonin
An indoleamine neurotransmitter (5-hydroxytryptamine)
that is crucial in maintaining a sense of well-being and security and is involved in depression
Addiction
A psychological and physical inability to stop consuming a chemical
Dopamine system
A group of nerve cells, most of which originate in the midbrain responsible for the pleasure system in the brain
Endorphin
Endogenous opioid receptor agonist
Sympathetic nervous system
Directs the body’s rapid involuntary response to dangerous or stressful situations
Central nervous system
The brain and spinal cord
Neurotransmitter
Any substance such as acetylcholine or dopamine, responsible for sending nerve signals across a synapse between two neurons
Antagonism
A chemical that binds to a receptor but does not produce a physiological response
* Blocking the action of agonist chemicals
