6.2.2

Question 1

Biochemical Explanation of Depression

Answer 1

Depression is caused by low levels of noradrenaline. Serotonin regulates noradrenaline, and a serotonin imbalance can cause low or high levels of noradrenaline, leading to depression or mania.

Question 2

Serotonin Deficiency Causes

Answer 2

Serotonin deficiency may result from a low tryptophan diet, high cortisol (stress hormone), overly sensitive post-synaptic receptor sites, high monoamine oxidase (enzyme) levels, or abnormalities in presynaptic reuptake pumps.

Question 3

Genetic Vulnerability to Depression

Answer 3

Vulnerability to depression is inherited, with specific alleles of serotonin-related genes (e.g., 5-HTT) linked to increased risk. Short alleles of 5-HTT are linked to depression, especially after stressful life events.

Question 4

Key Study on Genetic Links to Depression

Answer 4

Caspi et al. (2003) found that short alleles of the 5-HTT gene increase depression risk when facing stressful life events.

Question 5

Orucˇ et al. (1997) Study Design

Answer 5

Orucˇ et al. (1997) used correlation and interviews with blood tests to examine the frequency of 5-HTR2c and 5-HTT alleles in bipolar disorder patients.

Question 6

Sample of Orucˇ et al. (1997) Study

Answer 6

The study sample consisted of 82 adults (42 with bipolar disorder) from Croatia, with an opportunity sample design.

Question 7

Ethics of Orucˇ et al. (1997) Study

Answer 7

Ethical considerations in Orucˇ et al. (1997) included confidentiality of medical records and informed consent for blood tests and access to medical records.

Question 8

Results of Orucˇ et al. (1997) Study

Answer 8

38% of participants in the bipolar group had a first-degree relative with a mood disorder. Specific alleles (S and 1) were more common in bipolar females.

Question 9

Genetic Findings and Bipolar Disorder

Answer 9

S and 1 alleles were more common in females with bipolar disorder than healthy controls, suggesting a genetic link to bipolar disorder.

Question 10

Validity of Orucˇ et al. (1997) Study

Answer 10

Two experienced psychiatrists checked the diagnoses of bipolar disorder, improving the study’s validity.

Question 11

Generalization of Orucˇ et al. (1997) Study

Answer 11

The sample size was small, and the study’s findings may not apply to all populations, as only a few participants had the SS genotype for the 5-HTR2c gene.

Question 12

Reliability of Orucˇ et al. (1997) Study

Answer 12

The results are consistent with other studies (Gutiérrez et al., 1996; Kelsoe et al., 1996), supporting the reliability of the findings.

Question 13

Beck’s Cognitive Theory of Depression

Answer 13

Beck (1962) proposed that depression is caused by negative thoughts stemming from dysfunctional core beliefs. Depressed individuals have negative beliefs about the self, the world, and the future.

Question 14

Negative Cognitive Triad

Answer 14

Beck’s negative cognitive triad explains that depressed individuals hold negative beliefs about themselves, the world, and the future, reinforcing depressive thoughts.

Question 15

Confirmation Bias in Depression

Answer 15

Depressed individuals tend to focus on information that supports their negative beliefs while ignoring conflicting evidence, a phenomenon known as confirmation bias.

Question 16

Faulty Thinking Strategies in Depression

Answer 16

People with depression may engage in catastrophizing (expecting the worst) and personalizing (blaming themselves for negative events).

Question 17

Learned Helplessness and Depression

Answer 17

Learned helplessness suggests that depression is a learned response to negative experiences where individuals perceive a lack of control over their environment.

Question 18

Depressive Attributional Style

Answer 18

People with depression may make internal, global, and stable attributions for failure, which reinforces their negative mindset.

Question 19

Optimism and Attributional Style

Answer 19

In contrast, optimistic people attribute failure to external, specific, and unstable factors, seeing it as a temporary issue.

Question 20

Seligman et al. (1988) Study Aim

Answer 20

Seligman et al. (1988) aimed to replicate previous research showing a positive correlation between depressive attributional style and the severity of depressive symptoms.

Question 21

Seligman et al. (1988) Study Methodology

Answer 21

Participants with mood disorders completed the BDI and a questionnaire on attributions related to 12 events, followed by therapy and follow-ups at 1 and 12 months.

Question 22

Results of Seligman et al. (1988) Study

Answer 22

Depressive attributions were correlated with the severity of depressive symptoms. Greater decreases in pessimism during therapy correlated with symptom improvement.

Question 23

Conclusions from Seligman et al. (1988) Study

Answer 23

Seligman et al. concluded that people with mood disorders tend to make internal, global, and stable attributions, but this can be altered through therapy.

Question 24

Validity of Seligman et al. (1988) Study

Answer 24

Triangulation of BDI scores and interviews increased the study’s validity, and the control group’s stable pessimism suggested that pessimism is a cause of depression.

Question 25

Generalization of Seligman et al. (1988) Study

Answer 25

The sample included 50% more females than males, potentially limiting generalizability to all genders in depression research.

Question 26

Reliability of Seligman et al. (1988) Study

Answer 26

The study’s results showed impressive and stable improvements in symptoms, with post-therapy pessimism scores linked to relapse at 12 months.

Question 27

Biochemical Evidence for Depression

Answer 27

Evidence shows that reducing tryptophan through diet increases depressive symptoms in people with depression, suggesting a role for serotonin in the disorder.

Question 28

Serotonin and Depression Cause/Effect

Answer 28

Low serotonin levels may be an effect of depression rather than a cause, as seen in studies of social status changes in monkeys, where serotonin levels decreased in submissive monkeys.

Question 29

Applications of Biochemical Explanations

Answer 29

The biochemical understanding of depression has led to the development of drug treatments, helping individuals improve daily functioning.

Question 30

Determinism in Biochemical Explanations

Answer 30

Biochemical explanations of depression suggest a deterministic view, where everyone responds in the same way to reduced serotonin and noradrenaline.

Question 31

Genetic Evidence for Depression

Answer 31

Concordance rates for depression are higher in monozygotic (MZ) twins (38%) than dizygotic (DZ) twins (14%), supporting a genetic component in depression.

Question 32

Validity of Twin Studies in Depression

Answer 32

The shared environment fallacy limits the validity of twin studies, as environmental factors may contribute to depression risk in both MZ and DZ twins.

Question 33

Applications of Genetic Research in Depression

Answer 33

Understanding the genetic links to depression can lead to personalized treatments based on an individual's genetic profile (pharmacogenomics).

Question 34

Reliability of Genetic Studies on Depression

Answer 34

Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have failed to find consistent patterns of genes associated with depression, suggesting limitations in current genetic research.

Question 35

Beck's Cognitive Theory of Depression (Scientific)

Answer 35

Beck’s theory allows for scientific experiments to test hypotheses, such as whether depressed individuals use confirmation bias more than non-depressed individuals.

Question 36

Overly Deterministic Nature of Beck's Theory

Answer 36

Beck's cognitive theory can be overly deterministic, as some people may overcome negative thinking through therapy or other interventions.

Question 37

Learned Helplessness and Attributional Style (Evidence)

Answer 37

Seligman et al. (1988) provide evidence for learned helplessness and depressive attributional style as key psychological factors in depression.

Question 38

Bidirectional Ambiguity in Attributional Style

Answer 38

It’s unclear whether depressive attributional style is a cause or an effect of depression, raising issues with the interpretation of findings in psychological studies.

Question 39

Nature vs. Nurture in Depression

Answer 39

Twin studies support the role of nature in depression, while adoption studies suggest that nurture also plays a role in the development of depressive symptoms.

Question 40

Nature vs. Nurture Evidence (Kendler et al., 2018)

Answer 40

Kendler et al. (2018) found an increased risk for depression in adoptive children with a depressed adoptive parent, supporting a nurture explanation for depression.

Question 41

Reductionism vs. Holism in Depression Research

Answer 41

Orucˇ et al. (1997) provide an example of biological reductionism, focusing on single genes without considering epigenetic factors, while the diathesis-stress model is a more holistic approach.

Question 42

Determinism vs. Freewill in Psychological Explanations

Answer 42

Psychological explanations of depression may be seen as overly deterministic, as therapy or coaching can help individuals regain control over their thinking patterns.