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module 6 > 6.2.1 - cloning and biotechnology > Flashcards

6.2.1 - cloning and biotechnology Flashcards

1
Q

clones

A

genetically identical offspring

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2
Q

vegetative propagation

A

asexual reproduction, which involves taking a part of one plant and producing genetically identical offspring

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3
Q

natural plant cloning - bulbs

A

e.g daffodil. the leaf bases swell with stored food from photosynthesis and buds form. these develop into new shoots and then new plants

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4
Q

natural plant cloning - runners

A

e.g strawberries
lateral stem grows away from the parent plant and roots develop where the runner touches the ground. a new plant forms and the runner withers away

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5
Q

rhizomes

A

e.g marram grass
horizontal stem underground that is swollen with stored food. buds develop and form new vertical shoots that become plants

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6
Q

stem tubers

A

e.g potato
tip of an underground stem becomes swollen with stored food to form a tuber. buds on the storage organ then develop to produce new shoots

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7
Q

process of cuttings

A
  • take a sample plant you want to clone and cut the under the lateral buds
  • place in a rooting hormone, to increase growth
  • place in soil and allow to grow with the right conditions
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8
Q

advantages of natural cloning

A
  • quicker than normal reproduction
  • identical offspring
  • can happen in place of sexual reproduction
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9
Q

disadvantages of natural cloning

A

lack of genetic variation
susceptible to disease or changing environments
small gene pool

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10
Q

micropropagation

A

making large numbers of genetically identical offspring from a single parent plant using tissue culture techniques

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11
Q

when is micropropagation used?

A

when plants
- do not readily produce seeds
- do not respond well to natural cloning

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12
Q

steps of micropropagation

A
  • small sample from meristem is taken
  • this sample is sterilised (explant)
  • placed in a culture medium containing hormones, stimulating division - causes a callus
  • callus divided and transferred onto different culture mediums
  • forms plantlets that are potted into compost and left to grow
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13
Q

advantages of micropropagation

A

allows for large production of plants, making goof yield
disease free plants
streile to meet consumer tastes
provides a wat of growing plants which are naturally infertile or difficult to grow

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14
Q

disadvantages of micropropagation

A
  • genetically identical so all susceptible to same disease
  • expensive process, requiring skilled workers
  • explants are vulnerable to infection by moulds during production process
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15
Q

example of natural animal cloning

A

monozygotic twins (identical twins)
- the early embryo splits to form two separate embryos
- when born, they are genetically identical

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16
Q

artificial twinning in cattle steps

A
  • cow with desirable traits fertilised by a bull and early embryos are flushed out of the uterus
  • cells are then split to produce several smaller embryos - each capable of growing full term
  • grown in the lab and then implanted into surrogate mother
  • embryos develop normally into foetuses but are all genetically identical
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17
Q

somatic cell nuclear transfer steps

A
  1. nucleus is removed from somatic cell of an adult animal
  2. nucleus is removed from ovum (enucleated)
  3. nucleus from somatic cell is placed into the ovum and electrofusion takes place (electric shock to fuse)
  4. embryo that develops is transfered to uterus of a third animal
  5. new animal is a clone of the somatic celled animal.
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18
Q

uses of SCNT

A
  • pharming (production of animals that have been genetically engineered to produce pharmaceuticals)
  • produce GM animals which grow organs that can be used in human transplants
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19
Q

arguments for animal cloning

A
  • produce more offspring than normal reproduction
  • allows for more effective GM
  • clone specific animals
  • enable rare, endangered, or even extinct animals ti be reproduced
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20
Q

arguments against animal cloning

A
  • inefficient process
  • fail to develop
  • shortened lifespans
  • unsuccessful in increasing rare organism populations
21
Q

biotechnology

A

applying biological organisms or enzymes ti the synthesus, breakdown, or transformation of materials in the service of people

22
Q

why are microorganisms ideal for biotechnology?

A
  • no welfare issues
  • range of different microorganims
  • genetic engineering
  • short life cycle and rapid growth rate
  • nutrient requirements are simple and relatively cheap
23
Q

disadvantages of using microorganisms for biotechnology

A

need the exact ideal conditions to work effecrively - may produce toxins if the conditions are not maintained.
process has to be sterile
ethical issues with GMOs

24
Q

how are microorganims used in baking

A

yeasr - mixed with sugar and water to respire anaerobically - co2 produced makes the bread rise.

25
Q

how is cheese made using microorganisms

A

bacteria feed on lactose in milk, changing the texture and tatse, and inhibit the growth of bacteria which make the milk go off.

26
Q

attempts of using microorganisms to directly produce protein you can eat

A

Single celled protein
Quorn - others have not been successful

27
Q

producing penicillin

A

semi continuous batch process is used - first the fungus grows, then it produces penicillin, then the drug is extracted from the medium and purified.

28
Q

bioremediation

A

microorganisms are used to break down pollutants and contaminants in the soil ot in the water

29
Q

two approaches

A

using natural organisms - many organisms naturally break down organic material

GM organisms - can break down or accumulate contaminants where they would not normally encounter

30
Q

lag phase

A

bacteria are adapting to their new environment - they are growing.

31
Q

log phase

A

rate of baterial reproduction is close to or at its theoretical maximum

32
Q

stationary phase

A

where total growth rate is 0 - number of new cells formed by binary fission is cancelled out by the number of cells dying

33
Q

limiting factors affecting growth in a culture of bacteria

A
  • nutrients available
  • oxygen levels
  • temperature
  • build up of waste
  • change in pH
34
Q

primary metabolites

A

substances that are formed as an essential part of the normal functioning of a microorganism, e.g ethanol

35
Q

secondary metabolites

A

substances that are not needed for normal growth, that we can use for our own benefit or processes, e.g penicillin

36
Q

batch fermentation

A
  • the microorganisms are inoculated into a fixed volume of a medium
  • nutrients are used up and waste products build up
  • process is stopped before death phase and products are harvested
37
Q

continuous fermentation

A
  • microorganisms are innoculated into sterile nutrient medium
  • added continually
  • waste products and desirable products continuiusly removed
38
Q

how is temperature controlled in a bioreactor?

A

heating and cool jacket to control temp
thermostat
needs to be at optimum so microorganisms can work effectively

39
Q

advantages of using isolated enzymes

A

less wasteful
more efficient - work at much higher concentration

40
Q

immobilised enzyme

A

attached to an insoluble material where the substrate passes and is converted to product

41
Q

advantages of using immobilised enzymes

A
  • can be reused - cheaper
  • easily sepaeated from reactants and products they are catalysing
  • more reliable
  • greater temperature tolerance
42
Q

disadvantages of using immobilised enzymes

A
  • reduced efficiency - reduce activity rate
  • higher initial cost of materials
  • bioreactor cost
  • more technical issues
43
Q

entrapment - immobolised enzymes

A

in matrix, e.g in alginate beads

44
Q

bonding - immobilising enzymes

A

covalent bonding with hydroxyl or carboxyl groups
ionic bonds - like cellulose

45
Q

uses of immobilised enzynes

A
  • immobilised glucose isomerase used to produce fructose from glucose
  • imobilised lactase is used to produce lacto fre milk
46
Q

why are immobilised enzymes more active at certain pHs

A

less easily denatured as their shape is supported

47
Q

what is the reason for shaking the milk and the beads in the immobilising enzyme experiment

A

increased contact area between the enzyme and the substrate - more successful collisions (increased chance of a reaction taking place)

48
Q
A

module 6 (6 decks)

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