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Year 13 Biology > 6.2.1 - Cloning And Biotechnology > Flashcards

6.2.1 - Cloning And Biotechnology Flashcards

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1
Q

Clones def

A

They are genetically identical to their one parent.

They are formed by asexual reproduction

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2
Q

How does asexual reproduction occur in eukaryotes and prokaryotes

A

Mitosis in eukaryotes

Binary fission in prokaryotes

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3
Q

List examples of natural clones in animals or plants

A

Animals:
Identical twins

Plants - via vegetative propagation

  • corms
  • leaves
  • suckers
  • bulbs
  • Rhizomes
  • runners
  • Tubers
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4
Q

List advantages and disadvantages of clones in animals and plants
Explain why these are pros or cons

A

Pros:
- quick - increases production - increase chances of survival - increase chances of passing on genetic material, also have quicker evolution of organism to suit environment

  • possible when sexual reproduction fails/isn’t possible - population is still maintained
  • all offspring have genes to survive in their environment - increased chance of survival in environment - increase chance of passing on genes to future generations

Cons:

  • overcrowding - increased competition for resources
  • no genetic variation - more susceptible to disease
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5
Q

Vegetative propagation def

A

Production of structures in an organism that can grow into new organisms, genetically identical to the parent (clones).

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6
Q

How is vegetative propagation possible

A

Many parts of plant contain undifferentiated meristem tissues and cells
- these can differentiate into any cell type in the plant (totipotent)

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7
Q

Plant cuttings mechanism

A
  • stem cut at a node
  • remove bark if present to avoid the formation of a callus (a mass of undifferentiated cells)
  • add rooting powder, depending on plant species (some will take root less easily)
  • cut end of stem buried into soil
  • new roots will begin to grow into the soil
    (- what hormones can be added to aid growth)
  • process also possible from root cuttings, scion cuttings (in woody twigs) and leaf cuttings
  • ref to aseptic conditions
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8
Q

What is a callus?

A

A growing mass of undifferentiated meristem cells or parenchyma cells that forms over the surface of a wound or cut of a plant

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9
Q

Runners, stolons, rhizomes, suckers growth infomation

A
  • grow from horizontal stems that can form roots at certain points
  • these are called runners or stolons if they grow on surface
  • are rhizomes lf they are underground
  • suckers are new stems that grow from root of plants
  • in all cases, original horizontal branch may die
  • leaves the new stem as a separate individual
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10
Q

Bulbs growth info

A
  • consist of underground stem from which grow a series of fleshy leaf bases
  • there is also an apical bud
  • grows into a new plant in spring
  • often bulb contains more than one apical bud, each of which grow into a new plant
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11
Q

Leaves growth info

A
  • clones grow asexually
  • clones/seeds grow on leaf margins
  • immature plants drop off leaf and take root
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12
Q

Tubers growth info

A
  • underground stem
  • e.g. potatoes
  • one potato grows into one or more plants
  • each new plant can then produce many new tubers later that year (potatoes)
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13
Q

Micropropagation def

A

Growing large numbers of new plants from meristem tissue taken from a sample plant

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14
Q

Tissue culture def

A

Growing new tissues, organs or plants from certain tissues cut from a sample plant (explant)

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15
Q

Micropropagation mechanism

A
  • Tissue from apical buds (an explant) taken because it is meristematic
  • therefore undifferentiated and can still undergo mitosis
  • Surface is cleaned using sterilising agent to
  • ensures aseptic conditions so that no bacteria can grow as it could compete with the plant tissue
  • Explant is placed onto nutrient medium to encourage mitosis
  • this produces a callus (mass of undifferentiated cells)
  • The callus is subdivided and placed in a new nutrient medium
  • encourages differentiation of tissue. It contains:
    > auxins - stimulate formation of root hairs
    > cytokinins - stimulate shoot growth
    > magnesium - helps the plant make chlorophyll > nitrates needed for protein synthesis
    > sucrose - converted to glucose for respiration
  • The callus cells will grow into plantlets
  • can then be then placed in sterile soil
  • plantlets then grown in a greenhouse to acclimatise to normal growing conditions
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16
Q

Advantages of artificial cloning of plants

A
  • genetically identical - maintains favourable charcateristics
  • quicker to produce
  • more likely to survive - due to callus (undifferentiated cells) being more subdivided
  • more clones can be produced than using seeds
  • disease free
  • easily gentically maipulated
  • can be used for cloning infertile plants
  • easy to transport/store
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17
Q

Disdavantages of artificial clones of plants

A
  • genetically idebtical - all susceptible to same diseases
  • loss in gentic diversity
  • farmers have to buy the plants from suppliers
  • patented property
  • high cost, expensive to do
  • cant replicate them yourself
  • labour intesive, people need to be trained
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18
Q

Micropropagation (tissue culture) is one method used for the artificial propagation of new plants.
Small amounts of tissue are obtained from plants and used to produce clones
Explain the importance of each of the above steps. (Not included).
(6 Marks)

A
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19
Q

Two methods of artificially cloning animals (reproductive cloning)

A
  • embryo twinning

- somatic cell nuclear transfer

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20
Q

How embryo twinning occurs

A
  1. A zygote is created by IVF
  2. It is allowed to divide to form a small ball of cells
  3. These cells are separated and continue to divide separately
  4. Each of these cells is placed into a surrogate mother
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21
Q

Applications of embryo twinning

A 
Cloning ‘elite’ farm animal (best characteristics)
Scientific research (e.g. cloning fruit flies for testing/research)
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22
Q

How to stimulate mitosis in cells (not on spec)

A
  • electrical shocks

- presence of certain chemical/hormones/signalling cells

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23
Q

Cloning animals by nuclear cell transfer mechanism

A

Egg cell enucleated (nucleus removed)
Adult somatic cell diploid nucleus from a different animal removed and injected into enucleated egg cell (or adult cell fused with enucleated egg cell)
Cell given a small electric shock to stimulate mitosis in egg cell
Cell grows into an embryo in vitro (outside body)
(Embryo can be split into several embryos - to produce artificial twins)
Embryo(s) implanted into surrogate mother

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24
Q

Why a clone is not entirely genetically identical to nucleus donor

A

DNA also found in mitochondria
Only get DNA from nucleus in clones
Mitochondrial DNA only found in cytoplasm

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25
Q

How to collect clones for IVF or cloning

A

Treated with hormone (FSH - follicle stimulating hormone)
Superovulation
Collect eggs from ovaries

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26
Q

How surrogates could be prepared for implantation of embryo

A

Hormone treatments
Prepare uterus by causing lining to thicken
So provide an increased blood supply to placenta

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27
Q

Non-reproductive clones def

A

Cloned cells and tissues used for other purposes (not reproduction)

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28
Q

Therapeutic cloning def

A

New tissues and organs can be grown and replaced in patients where damaged
E.g. skin grafts, pancreatic cells/beta cells producing insulin, spinal cord damage, etc.

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29
Q

Pros of artifical cloning of animals

A

Scientific research - response to treatment would be the same
Elite farm animal production - clone animals with most desirable characteristics
Produce desirable characteristics
Reduce possibilities of disease

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30
Q

Cons of artificial cloning of animals

A

Lack of genetic diversity

Ethical reasons, unnatural, etc.

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31
Q

Biotechnology def

A

The industrial use of living organisms to produce food, drugs or other products

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32
Q

4 main areas of biotechnology

A

Food
Drugs
Enzymes
Other products

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33
Q

Food production biotechnology examples

- bacteria used?

A 
Baking - yeast
Brewing - 
Cheese making - rennet
Yoghurt Making - 
Penicillin production - Penicillium
Insulin production - 
Bioremediation -
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34
Q

Enzyme production biotechnology examples

A

Showbie

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35
Q

Pharmaceutical drug production biotechnology examples

A

Showbie

36
Q

Other products biotechnology examples

A

Showbie

37
Q

Advantages of using microorganisms in biotechnology

A

Cheap and easy to grow
Easy to genetically modify them
High temp not required to produce them, saves fuel cost compared to other processes, e.g haber process
Normal atmospheric pressure can be used to produce, safer
Not dependent on climate - can be done anywhere
Products released - easy to harvest
Short life cycle - can reproduce very quickly
Purer products produced - no unwanted byproducts
Waste products from other processes can be re-used

38
Q

Process of making cheese

A

Milk coagulation by bacteria
They convert lactose to lactic acid
Mixed with rennet
Rennin (enzyme) in rennet and Ca2+ coagulate (thicken) milk protein (casein)
Solid milk is called curd - pressed into cheese

39
Q

Process of baking

A

Mix ingredients to make dough
In ‘proving’, yeast anaerobically respires
This produces CO2 and bread rises
Baking evaporates ethanol from anaerobic respiration

40
Q

What conditions can fermenters control?

How do they control it

A

Optimum condition such as:

Pressure -
Temperature - cooling water in system
pH - pH and temp monitors - use buffer solution
O2 and CO2 conc. - sterile air added - O2 needed for aerobic respiration, anaerobic etc.
Nutrients added - carbon, nitrogen, vitamins and minerals needed for growth

41
Q

Two types of fermentation

A

Batch and continuous

42
Q

Info about batch fermentation

A

Microorganism starter population mixed with fixed quantity of nutrients at start ‐ no more added

At end products removed and tank emptied. Process started again.

Produces secondary metabolites after exponential phase (during stationary phase) because nutrients deplete
e.g. Penecillium making antibiotic Penicillin

Growth slower
Easy to set up and maintain
Contamination = loss of just one batch
Less efficient

43
Q

Info about continuous fermentation

A

Nutrients and products added and removed from culture continuously

Produces primary metabolites during exponential phase because nutrients do not deplete and culture stays in exponential phase e.g. Insulin from E.coli

Growth faster
Quite difficult to set up and maintain
Contamination = loss of much product
More efficient

44
Q

Explain how the student could modify the fermenter for continuous fermentation.
If you wish, you may add annotations to the figure to help you in your answer.
(4 Marks)

A
45
Q

Different phases in standard growth phase for batch fermentation
What happens in each stage

A

Lag phase - bacteria start to grow
Log phase/Exponential phase - exponential growth
Stationary phase - growth stops
Death phase - bacteria die faster than they multiply

46
Q

Metabolites def

A

Products of metabolic reactions

47
Q

Features of primary metabolites

A

• Produced during normal (log) growth phase
• Essential for normal cell growth/reproduction
> match growth in population (i.e. same pattern as growth curve)

48
Q

Sedondary metabolites features

A

• Not produced during normal (log) growth phase
• Produced after normal growth phase
• Not essential for normal cell growth/reproduction
> does not match the growth in population
> most antibiotics are secondary metabolites

49
Q

Microorganism population growth equation

A

N = No x 2^n

N = number of cells in population
No = number of cells in population at start
n = number of generations that have occurred
50
Q

Primary metabolite def

A

Molecule made in or needed for a cell’s normal survival or function
E.g. glucose, sucrose, named enzymes or amino acids, etc.

51
Q

Aspesis def

A

Absence of unwanted microorganisms

52
Q

Aseptic techniques def

A

Any measure to avoid contamination of sample or area from outside or foreign microorganisms
- important to get reliable and repeatable data

53
Q

Importance of asepsis when manipulating microbes

A
54
Q

Sterile def

- difference between sterile and asepsis

A

Sterile - absence of all microorganisms

  • asepsis is absence of unwanted microorganisms, e.g. harmful, sterile is absence of all microorganisms
55
Q

The nutrients required to grow microorganisms in a lab and processes needed for it

A
  • respiration - any carbon compound

- protein synthesis - nitrogen containing compounds

56
Q

Aseptic techniques - what can be done to reduce contamination

A
  • wash hands
  • disinfect surfaces
  • heat the air so microorganisms don’t settle
  • flame opening to any microorganism containing vessel before and after
  • flame equipment
  • limit air exposure, e.g. when petri dish lid is removed
57
Q

Sterilisation mechanism

A

Both the growth medium and the equipment must be sterilised
The equipment is sterilised through heating
Medium is sterilised using an autoclave
It is heated to 121 Degrees C for 15 mins
It is then poured into a sterile Petri dish and left to set
These processes kill all living microorganisms

58
Q

Explain the importance of maintaining aseptic conditions in manufacturing penicilin by fermentation.
(3 Marks)

A 
to avoid unwanted microbe entry 
So no competition for nutrients
So conditions in fermenter remain unchanged
So no decrease in yield of penicillin 
- max profit for industry

So no contamination of batch/penicillin
- so batch is unusable

To prevent escape of Penicillin from the system

59
Q

How is incubation carried out

A 
Stored upside down (remove dripping condensation)
Warm environment
Examined after 24-36 hours after
Do not open!
Each colony is from a single bacteria
Sterilised after use and before disposal
60
Q

Inoculation mechanism (Aseptic techniques PAG)

A

Cap is removed from sterile broth and tube mouth is flamed
Unheated loop is inserted into tube of sterile broth
Loop is removed from broth and tube mouth is flamed
Tube enclosure is returned to tube
Loop is flamed and returned to receptacle

61
Q

Immobilised enzyme def

A

Enzymes attached to an insoluble material in order to keep them separate from the reaction mixture

62
Q

Immobilised enzyme info

A

Substrate molecules can still form ESCs

But once product is formed, it is released into mixture whilst enzyme remains separate (more cost effective)

63
Q

4 methods to immobilise enzyme

A

Entrapment - trapped in alginate beads or cellulose mesh
Adsorption - stuck into collagen/clay/resin/porous glass
Covalent bonding to clay
Membrane separation - partially permeable membrane

64
Q

Advantages of immobilised enzymes in large scale production

A

Product uncontaminated by enzyme therefore no downstream processing - less cost/expensive
Enzyme not lost during process and therefore reusable - Reduces cost
Matrix protects the enzyme so enzyme works at higher temperatures so reaction can be faster done at higher temps
Matrix protects the enzyme so enzyme works in changed pH
Suitable for continuous culture (long shelf life)

65
Q

Disadvantages of immobilised enzymes in large scale production

A

Immobilisation difficult/expensive

Can be less active as substrate has to get through beads etc, so don’t form ESCs as readily

66
Q

Function of glucose isomerase

A

Converts glucose to fructose to make high fructose corn syrup (sweeter than sucrose).

67
Q

Function of penicillin acylase

A

Creates semi-synthetic penicillins.

- useful for people that are allergic to natural penicillin

68
Q

Function of lactase

A

Converts lactose to glucose and galactose by hydrolysis to make lactose-free milk.

69
Q

Function of aminoacylase

A

A hydrolase enzyme used to produce pure samples on L-amino acids by removing acyl group from the nitrogen of an N-acyl-amino acid.

70
Q

Function of glucoamylase

A

During the hydrolysis of starch short polymers of glucose are made (dextrins) which can then be further hydrolysed to make glucose.

71
Q

Nitrile hydratase function

A

Converts nitriles to amides (some of which can be used to make plastics).

72
Q

State one advantage and a disadvantage of using clones to test treatment for a disease.
(2 Marks)

A

Pros:

  • genetically identical - all react the same
  • genetic variable controlled

Cons:

  • expensive to produce clones
  • don’t see varied responses to drug like in real populations (e.g mice)
  • clones may have unknown health issues
  • this could affect their response to treatment
73
Q

Adult cell cloning can be used to investigate the development and treatment of disease.

Outline two other potential applications of adult cell cloning

(2 Marks)

A
  • to produce elite/best animals - desirable characteristics
  • to save/preserve endangered animals/recreate extinct animals
  • grow/produce spare stem cells/tissues/organs
  • AVP - e.g. cloning GM animals, etc.
74
Q

Describe the differences between:
somatic cell gene therapy and germ line cell gene therapy
(2 Marks)

A

Somatic:

  • changes/uses body cells
  • changes cannot be passed to offspring
  • cures genetic diseases in one individual
  • short-lived - repeat treatments needed

Germ line:

  • changes/uses gametes
  • germ line change could be passed to offspring
75
Q

Glucoamylase enzyme function

A

Conversion of dextrins to glucose

76
Q

Advantages and disadvantages of using microorganisms to make food for human consumption

A

Need to write

77
Q

Arguments for and against artificial cloning in animals

A

For:

  • maximise agricultural output/yield e.g. produce more milk
  • remove less desirable characteristics from gene pool
  • help preserve endangered species
  • provide regenerated organs for patients suffering from degenerative diseases
  • will be a direct match - so no chance of rejection by immune system

Against:

  • ethical reasons, e.g. embryos destroyed
  • unknown long term effect sir cloning process
  • process of somatic cell nuclear transfer doesn’t always work
  • potential health problems that clones can have, e.g. breathing/circulatory problems
78
Q

Spec - the importance of manipulating the growing conditions in batch and continuous fermentation in order to maximise the yield of product required

A

Need to write

79
Q

Spec - why are microorganisms used in biotechnology

A
  • short life cycle
  • cheap to use and produce
  • quick and easy to produce
  • growth requirements - very few nutrients needed - cheap and easy, etc.
80
Q

Uses of reproductive cloning of animals

A

Conservation of endangered species/extinct species

Lab animals - same response to given treatments

81
Q

Therapeutic cloning def

A

Cells or organs are grown in tissue culture to repair/replace damaged tissues

82
Q

Why does embryo splitting occur at the 8 cell phase

A

Because up to that point cells are totipotent

- so after that cells begin to specialise

83
Q

Two advantages to a farmer of using embryos produced by embryo twinning.
(2 Marks)

A
  • desirable characteristic - highest milk yield etc.
  • rare breeds conserved
  • sex/gender controlled
84
Q

Explain why plants produced from micropropagation form clones.
(2 Marks)

A

Mitosis - asexual reproduction

  • genetically identical
  • tissue taken from cambium in stem is meristem
  • meristem are totipotent - can differentiate into any cell type and so can grow into any tissue to produce new plants
85
Q

Give one advantage of runners

A

Plant can reproduce even if it is one isolated individual
No reliance on pollination
Reproduction is faster

86
Q

Why is asexual reproduction faster than sexual reproduction

A

Does not require development of sex organs or specialised haploid gametes
Organism does not need to release male gametes, nor do they need to be released by another individual
Time taken to find a mate to sexually reproduce with

Year 13 Biology (19 decks)

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