6.1 The Self 2

Question 1

Explain why Lepper, Green and Nisbett’s results of rewards decreasing intrinsic motivation occur

Answer 1

This is a result of self-perception processes:
Look at the kid’s behaviour and take into account the fact they will get a reward
See it as a bribe and only did the activity to get the reward
They must not like drawing if they have to be offered a reward to do it
When not offered a reward, they do not make the same attributions

Question 2

How can rewards be effective?

Answer 2

Offer them as a surprise

Question 3

Discuss Cooley’s looking glass self

Answer 3

Another source of self-knowledge: We can turn to other people to learn about ourselves

We derive self-knowledge by looking at other people, trying to figure out what those people think of us:

• As a reflection of how others see us
• Their reactions can tell us about who we are

Question 4

What is Festinger’s social comparison theory?

Answer 4

We learn about our own abilities and attitudes by comparing ourselves to other people

The theory revolves around 2 questions:
When do we engage in social comparison?
With whom do we choose to compare ourselves?

Question 5

Explain how people who like you may be biased about your actual abilities

Answer 5

E.g. your mum always complimenting your sporting abilities

Question 6

Give an example of engaging in social comparison processes

Answer 6

E.g. play lots of sport games to work out how you compare in your skills

Question 7

When do we engage in social comparison?

Answer 7

More likely to engage when there is no objective standard to measure yourself again

When you experience uncertainty about yourself in a particular area

Question 8

Give an example of when there is no objective standard to measure yourself again

Answer 8

E.g. how much money to donate to charity?
There is no objective standard here so the question is hard
What you might do is compare yourself to other people to derive what you should do

Question 9

Give an example of when you experience uncertainty about yourself in a particular area

Answer 9

Sometimes, not clear whether your performance is good or bad
E.g. scoring 15/20 on a test - is this a good score?

This is why percentile rankings are so informative = they compare you to other people

Question 10

What did Gilbert, Giesler and Morris say about automaticity of social comparisons?

Answer 10

Making social comparisons may be a spontaneous, automatic process, at least with salient targets

We will socially compare sometimes even when it is not appropriate to do it
Information provided can be faulty - this doesn’t lead to good self-knowledge

Question 11

What is a salient target in regard to social comparisons?

Answer 11

Salient targets = another person you can compare yourself against

Question 12

Discuss what happens in the schizophrenia detection ability test

Answer 12

Students come into the lab and told them to they will do a test on their “schizophrenic detection ability”
Identify from photos of people’s faces

So they have an understanding of what to do, they watch an instructional video of another student doing the test

Told it was an actor who performs either poorly or well

1/2 participants made cognitively busy - remember an 8 digit number

All participants then did the test and received ambiguous feedback - 10/18
Had to rate their own competence at the task

Question 13

Why are P’s in Gilbert’s study told the student they watch is an actor?

Answer 13

Engaging in social comparison with this person (the actor) is meaningless because it was staged

Question 14

Why are 1/2 of Ps in Gilbert’s study made cognitively bust?

Answer 14

Don’t have your full suite of cognitive resources available

Question 15

What did Gilbert’s study find?

Answer 15

Performance of the model makes a significant difference when cog busy:
When the model was poor, you thought you did v well compared to when the model did well you thought you had a bad score
Regardless of the fact the model was staged
i.e. inappropriate to make these social comparisons

When not under cognitively load, there is no significant diff
You don’t compare yourself to the model’s performance

Question 16

What did Gilbert conclude based on their study?

Answer 16

Concluded that social comparisons are automatic
It takes effort to undo the cognitive resources and cannot do it when you are busy BUT you can correct for them when you’re not busy

Question 17

Who did Festinger say we tend to choose to compare ourselves to?

Answer 17

In terms of theory, we compare ourselves to people who are similar to ourselves
It’s because we are motivated to perceive ourselves accurately
Our motives map onto our targets of social comparisons

Question 18

What did a meta-analysis of 55 studies find regarding who we choose to compare ourselves to?

Answer 18

Found people prefer comparing themselves to someone who is better than them

This may be because people are trying to be inspired so are looking up to others
Try to understand the best that they can possibly be

Question 19

When do different social comparisons occur?

Answer 19

When we have different motives

Question 20

What is upward social comparison and when do we engage in it?

Answer 20

Upward social comparison = comparing yourself to people who are better than you on a particular ability

If you want to work out the top level you can aspire to

Question 21

What is downward social comparison and when do we engage in it?

Answer 21

Downward social comparison = comparing yourself to people who are worse than you on a particular ability

Engage in it when want to feel better about yourself

Question 22

What is a self-motive?

Answer 22

Essentially a goal to establish or maintain a state in the self
Lots of diff goals you may have in relation to yourself

“An inclination that is aimed toward establishing or maintaining a particular state of self-awareness, self-representation or self-evaluation”

Question 23

What are the 3 types of self-motive?

Answer 23

Accuracy perception
Self-verification
Self-enhancement

Question 24

What is accuracy perception?

Answer 24

The motivation to have accurate and valid info about ourselves
Why people make social comparisons with people similar to them (Festinger)

Question 25

What is self-verification?

Answer 25

Motivation to confirm what we already know about our self

Already formulated a self-concept, even if it is -ve, you want to verify it with other people

Question 26

What is self-enhancement?

Answer 26

Motivation to maintain or increase the positivity of your self as well as the desire to maintain, protect, and enhance one’s self-image
Feeling good about yourself
Some researchers argue this is the strongest self-motive

Question 27

What are manifestations of self-enhancement?

Answer 27

We are better than average
We are better today than we were in the past
We make biased attributions
We define categories and traits in self-serving ways
We engage in self-handicapping
We sometimes sabotage other people

Question 28

What is the better than average effect?

Answer 28

We tend to think we are above average on the ability to get along with others

Polled 1m high school students
80% rated themselves above average at their ability to get on with other people

Question 29

What do we think we are above average on?

Answer 29

The ability to get on with others
Happiness
The ability to make objective judgments

Question 30

Why does the better than average effect occur?

Answer 30

People exaggerate their skills and abilities to enhance themselves and feel better about themselves

Question 31

What is temporal self-appraisal theory?

Answer 31

Can compare ourselves to our past selves to feel better about who we are now

When we think about ourselves, we think of our self as a string of selves over time = evolution of the self
These past selves provide us with a target for downward social comparison
“I am better than I was in the past”

Question 32

How has temporal self-appraisal theory been tested and what was found?

Answer 32

Had uni students come into the lab and had to rate themselves or an acquaintance on a number of diff traits
○ +ve and -ve traits
○ As you are now v how you were in the past

Found that people thought they were better now than in the past BUT didn’t think there acquaintances were better now

Question 33

What are biased attributions?

Answer 33

Making attributions that cast ourselves in a +ve light

Means people can attribute the failure to something external to them - they don’t take responsibility for that failure
Saves their self-esteem

Question 34

What are biased attributions motivated by?

Answer 34

Self-enhancement motive

Question 35

How can the self-enhancement motive influence how we define concepts?

Answer 35

Self-serving category definitions and trait definitions

Question 36

What are self-serving category definitions?

Answer 36

We can shift the meaning of a category so that it enables us to enhance the self and be reflected well

Defining categories - there is no objective definition so you can skew it so it fits with the virtues you have

Question 37

What are self-serving traits?

Answer 37

Traits are also subjective
Diff ideas as to what they mean
Depends on your slant based on your own virtues

Question 38

What is self-handicapping?

Answer 38

Creating obstacles to success in order to protect the self

Question 39

Give an example of self-handicapping

Answer 39

E.g. big exam coming up and nervous for it
Self-handicap by creating barriers for success
Allows you to attribute any failure to that success
Avoid -ve internal attributions
Not going to study

Question 40

How does self-handicapping increase glory of success?

Answer 40

Make it harder to succeed so if you do you must be amazing!

Question 41

What is a problem with self-handicapping?

Answer 41

Problem with this is that because you are putting obstacles in place in the long run it makes success less likely

Over time, you are going to reduce the likelihood you will pass the exam
It can handicap you