6. Social and economic change (1855-94)

Question 1

Why was it the state that had to drive economic growth in the late 1800s?

Answer 1

There was no real middle class (unlike in Western countries) so no entrepreneurs to drive growth. The state had to take the leading role.

Question 2

Who was Mikhail von Reutern and what reforms did he bring in?

Answer 2

Minister of Finance (1862-78)
- Tax-farming abolished
- More indirect taxation
- State bank established 1860 [not under him]
- Govt subsidies for private railway construction

Question 3

What industries began to grow in the 1870s?

Answer 3

• 1871: Oil extraction began in Baku
• 1872: Ironworks set up in Donetsk

Question 4

In what ways did the economy remain weak (1855-94)?

(How much spending on debt repayments? How much income from indirect taxes?)

Answer 4

• 1/3 of govt spending was on debt repayments
• Value of rouble fluctuated a lot
• 66% of govt income from indirect taxes (less reliable)
• Failure of emancipation meant peasants remained poor and internal market remained small

Question 5

Was the reduction in tariffs successful?

(1855-94)

Answer 5

Not really. Reduced govt revenue and they were brought back in 1878.

Question 6

When was Vyshnegradsky the Minister of Finance?

Answer 6

1887-92

Question 7

What policies did Vyshnegradsky bring in?

Answer 7

• 30% tariff on raw materials, to boost southern Russia’s iron industry
• Increased indirect taxes
• Increased grain exports 18% from 1881 to 1891

Question 8

Why was the increase in grain exports under Vyshnegradsky not a good thing?

Answer 8

• Many peasants had grain requisitioned by the state to be exported.
• Vyshnegradsky said, “We ourselves shall not eat, but we shall export”
• This meant there was no spare grain, so during the Great Famine (1891-92) food shortages were exacerbated by Vyshnegradsky’s policies

Question 9

How many of Russia’s 39 provinces were affected by the Great Famine (1891-92)?

Answer 9

17

Question 10

How did the Great Famine undermine confidence in the regime?

Answer 10

• Govt requisitioning of grain had left grain stores empty, exacerbating the famine.
• The govt did little to support the people, and the zemstva had to step in to provide aid.

Question 11

When was Sergei Witte the Minister of Finance?

Answer 11

1892-1903

Question 12

By how much did foreign investment increase from 1880 to 1895?

Answer 12

98m roubles -> 280m roubles

Question 13

How much of the railway system was state-owned by the 1890s?

Answer 13

60%

Question 14

What did Witte encourage to help build the railways and improve industries?

Answer 14

• Foreign investment
• Foreign expertise: engineers and managers from Western countries like France, to oversee the growth of the railways

Question 15

How many nobles owned their own business in Moscow by 1882?

Answer 15

Over 700.

Question 16

By 1882 how many nobles were employed in commerce and industry?

Answer 16

2500

Question 17

Was a middle class starting to appear by the 1890s?

Answer 17

YES - bankers, doctors, teachers more in demand; as Russia industrialised, middle class became factory owners and supervisors

NO - middle class still made up less than 500,000 in 1897 census

Question 18

How much of the population were urban working class by the late 1800s?

Answer 18

About 2%

Question 19

What reforms were made to working conditions in 1882-90?

Answer 19

• Regulation of child labour
• Reduction of payment in kind
• Inspectors to check up on working conditions

However these had little effect and workers lived and worked in dire conditions.

Question 20

How many strikes were there from 1886 to 1894?

Answer 20

About 33 per year (despite being illegal).

Question 21

What was the life expectancy for male and female peasants (1855-94)?

Answer 21

28 years for men, 29 years for women.

In Britain it was 45 years.

Question 22

How much of the population identified as Orthodox Christians (1855-94)?

Answer 22

70%