6. how do we 'do' science? Flashcards
what are the 4 ‘steps’ of the move from an idealized view of science to a more sociologically grounded perspective?
- Kuhn’s Analysis of Science: scientific progress and the evolution of knowledge are driven by internal social factors within the scientific community, not by external, objective rules.
- Lakatos’ View on Science: Lakatos refines Kuhn’s ideas by portraying science as a competition between multiple claims, organized into scientific research programmes (SRPs). It is a dynamic process where different research programmes evolve over time.
- Scientific Knowledge as a Social Product: Scientific knowledge is produced by a community of trained, socialized professionals working in specific spaces, like laboratories. knowledge shaped by natural phenomena + the social and political contexts in which science is practiced.
- Robert K. Merton’s Normative Structure of Science: proposed that science is governed by a set of institutional norms, which guide behavior and structure the scientific community. He introduced the CUDOS norms
explain + who did CUDOS norms?
by Merton
CUDOS= all the characteristics and moral standards governing the activities of members of the scientific community
-Communism: Knowledge is shared as a common good.
-Universalism: Science is impersonal, free from individual biases.
-Disinterestedness: Scientists should be neutral and objective.
-Organized Skepticism: Scientific claims must be critically examined by the community.
what is STS (science and technology studies)? what are the 6 defining points of it?
- Science and Technology as Social Activities
-Epistemic Communities: Groups of professionals trained in scientific methods who establish criteria for knowledge validation and evaluation. - sc in laboratories, professional assosiations…
- Communication between these communities relies on rhetorical work(format, writing style) to communicate and convince
- Scientists, engineers, etc. have investments in skills, knowledge, theories, practices, prestige
- Scientists work in institutions, that are competitive spaces in constant struggle to gain resources and promote their views
- The laboratory as a new site of research: researching researchers and how they produce scientific facts
what is S&T?
S&T (science and technology): fields of study and practice focused on the development of knowledge (science) and its application through tools, techniques, and processes (technology) to solve problems, improve human life, and advance societal progress.
what are the main questions of STS?
How does S&T shape social life and the world around us?
How are society, our world, in turn shaping developments in S&T?
what does challenge CUDOS?
STS:
-Communism → Secrecy: In reality, there is a high degree of secrecy, with scientists protecting their ideas from plagiarism and competing for recognition, grants, and prizes.
-Universalism → Particularism: Science is often structured by social biases such as gender, class, and race, with discrimination affecting the roles and opportunities for women and minorities.
-Disinterestedness → Interestedness: Scientists are often driven by personal interests, such as reputational or financial gain. Issues like data fraud or selective reporting can undermine the objectivity of their work.
-Organized Skepticism → Credulity: Instead of critical skepticism, there can be unquestioning adherence to consensus, influenced by financial interests and prejudices.
what is the ‘Publish or Perish’ Model
Open Access Science: Transparency and Accessibility
-Instead of paying to read, authors pay to publish
-Freely written, reviewed, and edited.
-Negative Incentives in the past model:
Profit-driven motives + publication quantity rather than quality + peer Review not double-blind
what is the role of university in scientific knoweledge?
-organizing, training, and socializing individuals within Self-Referential Communities (communities of experts who produce knoweledge).
-increasing Abstraction: reliance on abstract concepts, theories, and complex instruments
-increasing Specialization: shift towards highly specialized fields( biology, chemistry, and social sciences).
-Institutionalization of science: more structured and requires institutional support.
what are the core features of universities?
-central institutions for the production of public knoweldge
-independent entities.
-Unity of Knowledge: Connecting various forms of knowledge through reason and rational thought.
-Mission: To proliferate knowledge, reason, ethics, and the appropriate attitude toward learning and discovery.
why are disciplines good for Division and Demarcation of Knowledge
-Between Disciplines:
Boundaries are drawn to separate related fields into distinct areas of research.
-Within a Discipline:
.Defines legitimate knowledge.
.Establishes norms for formulating questions, producing knowledge, and communicating findings.
-Rules and Norms:
Sets standards for inclusion, exclusion, and importation of ideas (e.g., mainstream vs. radical interpretations).
how are disciplines linked to historical context?
Disciplines are historically rooted:
Emerge from specific societal, scientific, or political questions.
Develop in particular historical contexts (e.g., colonialism, social Darwinism, empire).
what are the funtions of disciplines?
-Fragmentation of Knowledge
-Taxonomy of Knowledge: Provides a structure to classify and organize our understanding of reality.
-Ordering of Knowledge: Creates hierarchies (e.g., science vs. non-science, natural vs. social sciences).
-Institutionalization of Knowledge:
Establishes rules, institutions, and memberships for disciplines.
-Commodification of Knowledge:
knowledge turned into products (e.g., academic publishing industry worth billions).
-Socialization and Normalization of Knowledge: Shapes societal views
who highlighted Black internationalism?
Vitalis:
● Discussed how international relations and racial studies intersect.
● Racism was a deliberate imperialist tool to maintain hierarchical divisions.
● Nixon’s rhetoric showcased the persistence of racial ideologies in global politics.
● Highlighted Black internationalism:
○ Emerged post-Cold War, influencing America’s civil rights movements.
○ Questioned whether the US was truly the “great imperium.”
what are the three main Post-Cold War Phenomena in IR?
- Imperial competition: Expansion into Africa, Asia, and Latin America.
- Formation of key social science institutions in the US.
- Rise of racial theories like Social Darwinism.
what are the Key Contributions and Theories in IR
Vitalis; the 3 Post-Cold War phenomena; Howard School’s; Woolf;
what is Howard School’s Contribution
Linked imperialism and racism.
Critiqued racial science and its pseudo-scientific claims.
explain Leonard Woolf contributions to IR
● Explored hierarchy and coercion in imperialism.
● Criticized the UN’s mandate system, which marginalized non-Western societies.
how was racism used as a tool for imperialism? what are the post-cold war critics?
● Racism reinforced imperialist ideologies and justified exploitation.
● Post-WWII, myths about racial superiority were debunked, but racial divisions persisted in political rhetoric.
● Example: US President Richard Nixon’s speeches perpetuated racial hierarchies,
illustrating the persistence of imperialist beliefs.
➡ Post-Cold War Critiques:
● IR scholars challenged hierarchical structures and advocated for interdisciplinary
engagement.
● Marginalization of intellectuals of color remains a key issue
the contemporary dynamics (still abt racism in science)
● Huntington’s “Clash of Civilizations”:
○ Criticised for perpetuating cultural hierarchies and portraying the Muslim world negatively.
● Post-9/11: Cultural differences became central to international discourse, reinforcing old hierarchies in new contexts.
what about Black Internationalism and Racial Thought in IR?
● Black internationalism (from Vitalis): A global response to white supremacy, influencing intellectual and political movements.
● The Howard School criticised imperialism by analyzing the links between colonial hierarchies (hierarchies of imperialism) and racial ideologies.
● Leonard Woolf’s Analysis: Highlighted coercion and marginalization in imperial structures, criticizing the UN’s failure to promote self-determination.
what is Vitalis’s book about?
historical link of race, empire, and international relations:
-Historical Amnesia: how IR, like society, has largely ignored its complicity in racial and imperial hierarchies.
-Leonard Woolf’s Insights: Woolf’s critique of imperialism and economic exploitation in Africa is noted as still relevant today. He advocated for tutelage to transform imperial exploitation into governance benefiting colonized populations.
-Failures of Trusteeship (tutelage): Post-WWII institutions like the UN Trusteeship Council often failed to genuinely empower colonized peoples, with independence movements achieving change more directly.
-Enduring Hierarchies: persistence of racial hierarchies in IR thought and policy, from colonialism to Cold War interventions and beyond, often cloaked under liberal or developmental rhetoric.
- author urges IR scholars to confront the discipline’s racialized and imperial roots,
