5. How Does Knowledge Evolves Flashcards
What is falsification
.way to refute theories, concept that scientific theories should be structured in a way that makes them testable/ open to réfutation
.associated with Karl Popper
.underlines the importance of disproving rather than proving theories
Ex of Thompson and the ‘spasmodic’ views of social History with falsification
. Thompson’s theory: social violence and riots among poor are driven by hunger: when food prices exceed a certain threshold
. Critics of Thompson (he showed how his theory is not good to illustrate falsification): violence does not consistently appear in historical sources, even during instances where food prices surpasses the thresholds so theory fails, hunger alone cannot explain violence
.alternative explanation to explain non violence: moral economy (communities’ shared expectations about fairness in eco transaction) + Linked to relative (percieved inequality) vs absolue deprivation (hunger): percieved inequality= stronger motive
In practice what falsification forces us to think? Ex of democratic peace theory
How would WE know if WE are wrong?
Ex: claim: démo do not engage in War - falsification criterion: finding even one instance of conflict btwn démo would disprove thé theory
What is a paradigm
A compréhensive methodological framework that defines research objets, methods, and assumptions and remains unchallenged until a crisis arises
what is Kuhn’s paradigm theory ?
-scientific progress is not purely a logical process, but rather a social one: scientific communities work within a “paradigm,” a framework that dictates the methods, objects of investigation, and assumptions within a scientific field. This paradigm shapes how the world is understood, with existing theories influencing how new observations are interpreted= observations are “theory-laden.”
-Normal science: does not aim to create new theories but rather works to solve puzzles (observational: improving precision, experimental: demonstrating the predictive capacity of the theory, or theoretical refining the theory itself) within the existing paradigm.
-a paradigm is not questioned unless it faces serious anomalies
- “Paradigm Shift”= scientific revolutions occur when a dominant paradigm is overthrown by a new one, which is often driven by social factors, such as the accumulation of anomalies that existing paradigms cannot address. Kuhn’s theory challenges the traditional view of science highlighting the role of social factors and the dynamic nature of scientific knowledge.
-scientific theories may be influenced by the same biases as ideological positions.
physicist reactions to kuhn’s paradigm theory (critics)
- critic of the idea that scientific knowledge is predominantly shaped by social and historical forces: ultimate goal of science is to find objective truths about the world, independent of social or historical influences -> the success or failure of a scientific theory is determined by how well it corresponds to the objective reality
-critics of the idea that the development of scientific knowledge is deeply influenced by the prevailing social structures and paradigms within the scientific community: social process may shape how scientific knowledge is developed or communicated, BUT it does not determine whether the knowledge itself is true or valid
-Criticism of the “Paradigm Shift” Concept: scientific progress does not always follow a discontinuous, revolutionary pattern. Instead, scientific progress is cumulative, with theories gradually refining over time to provide better descriptions of reality
-critic of Lakatos: ‘mob psychology’ (lack of rationality and objectivity in Kuhn’s explanation of paradigm shifts and scientific revolutions): letting pseudo science run free bcs based on people’s experiences and views
def of anomalies, in paradigms
what happend then?
(according to Kuhn’s structure of scientific revolutions)
anomalies= unsolved problems or unexpected observations
-> When these anomalies accumulate and the paradigm fails to address them, a crisis emerges. Scientists remain committed to the paradigm but encounter unresolved issues, leading to dissatisfaction and tension.
-> solution: apparition of a new paradigm
need a reconstruction of the field, with new fundamental assumptions, methods, and applications. This shift is often compared to a social or political revolution
-> Incommensurability arises when different paradigms produce incompatible knowledge. Scientists working within different paradigms interpret the same phenomena in different ways, leading to misunderstandings and communication barriers.
what is natural science? (Lakatos, Kuhn dealt with it)
a branch of science that deals with the physical world, e.g. physics, chemistry, geology, biology.
what is Lakatos scientific research programmes (SRPs)?
(btw challenges/ critics Kuhn)
critics to Kuhn: he seeks a middle ground by integrating history with philosophy of science, arguing that scientific progress cannot be understood without considering both.
ideas builds on Popper’s ideas but refines them with sophisticated falsificationism (science advances through competing research programmes rather than the simple rejection of individual theories)
his SPR (scientific research programmes):
1. SRPs are dynamic and evolve over time. 2. consist of a hard core (irrefutable beliefs) and a protective belt (auxiliary hypotheses) that can be adjusted when anomalies arise.
3. Progress in science occurs through the competition of SRPs:
-problemshift occurs when an SRP predicts novel facts that are corroborated by new evidence, thereby increasing the scope of scientific knowledge.
-If an SRP fails to produce novel facts and merely defends against anomalies, it is deemed degenerative and eventually rejected.
-> progress is more defined by the generation of novel, corroborated facts rather than the elimination of falsified theories.
3. Falsification applies to the protective belt, but not the hard core (two methodological rules):
-Positive heuristic: strategies and methods that scientists use to adjust and develop the protective belt of an SRP in response to anomalies. When an anomaly arises, the protective belt can be adjusted or modified to accommodate these anomalies.
-Negative heuristic: principle that protects the hard core of an SRP from being abandoned or modified, even in the face of significant anomalies. It establishes that the fundamental assumptions and core beliefs of a research programme should remain intact and cannot be falsified directly.
what does Kuhn’s Scientific Revolutions means?
● Scientific revolutions: Episodes where an older paradigm is entirely or partially replaced by an incompatible new one.
● Small revolutions: Even minor paradigm shifts, though seemingly normal, are significant to those affected.
➡ Political revolutions: Similar to scientific revolutions in requiring mass persuasion, often involving force.
what are Three Types of Phenomena for New Theory Development in Kuhn’s scientific revolutions
-> developing new theories often stems from the interaction between existing paradigms and observed phenomena. These phenomena fall into three categories:
- Well-explained phenomena: These are phenomena that are effectively addressed by current paradigms and theories (Existing theories provide robust explanations)
- Incompletely explained phenomena: these are partially addressed by current paradigms, but the explanations are insufficient or lack depth.
- Anomalies: these are phenomena that existing paradigms cannot account for or assimilate (challenge the validity of current frameworks and often drive the development of entirely new theories)
example of Kuhn’s paradigms theory with Newton paradigm vs. Einstein paradigm
- Newtonian Paradigm: Explained gravitational phenomena but contained unresolved issues.
- Einsteinian Paradigm:
○ Redefined gravitational concepts, requiring a shift in permissible problems and standards.
