5A: Observational & Social Learning Flashcards
Observational Learning
Learning by observing 'Social learning, vicarious learning' A model is witnessed by an observer, and as a result the observer’s behaviour is changed Efficient acquisition of new behaviour Watch and learn (deliberate or accidental)
Imitation
The act of copying the actions or behaviour of someone
else (a model).
Important: imitation is believed to demonstrate unique cognitive abilities, specifically capacity for perspective-taking e.g. imitating facial expressions
Two types of observational learning
Social: observing the behaviour of another and its consequences, vicarious reinforcement (if strengthened) or punishment (if weakened)
Asocial: consists of learning from observed events in the absence of a model
True imitation
Duplication of a novel behaviour (or sequence or motor tasks)
Generalised imitation
Imitation of new modelled behaviour without specific reinforcement to do so
Vicarious emotional conditioning
Classically conditioned emotional responses resulting from seeing those emotional responses exhibited by others e.g. fear modelling (see someone scared of a spider, become scared of spiders too).
Contagious behaviour
Social learning is NOT this. Instinctive or reflexive behaviour triggered by its presence in another individual e.g. yawning Evolutionarily helpful - cows running, orienting Social bonding – laughter
Stimulus enhancement
Social learning is NOT this.
Directing attention toward objects, events or locations in an environment as a result of another organism’s action.
e.g. you notice something because someone else’s behaviour draws your attention to it.
Usually has instinctive value.
Difficulty of task
Effects observational learning.
The more difficult the task, the harder it is to learn through observation.
Skilled vs unskilled model
Effects observational learning.
Skilled: the model demonstrates the proper performance of a task
Unskilled: the observer then sees both what works and what does not and will learn from the model’s mistakes as well as their successes
Characteristics of the model
We learn more from models that are: • Competent • Attractive • Likeable • Prestigious • Powerful • Popular
Consequences of observed acts
Will observe what happens to model when they do something
E.g. when aggressive responses are praised, will be more likely to respond aggressively.
Consequences of observer’s behaviour
Observer’s will do what works for them, regardless of consequences observed.
Characteristics of the observer
- Language skill
- Past experience
- Age (young tends to imitate a model more, mature get more from observing)
- Gender (females more likely to observe)
Social Learning Theory
Bandura and Walters (1977)
People learn in a social context through the principles of classical and operant conditioning, observational learning, and modelling & imitation.
Not all behaviour can be explained by CC and OC principles, so he included two additional elements:
• Social processes
• Cognitive processes in modern iterations of model
What is social learning theory
Form of instrumental conditioning in which actions that replicate observed acts are directly or indirectly reinforced
• Any behaviour can be learned without direct reinforcement or punishment
Expectations of reinforcers and punishers will influence likelihood of performing the action, but learning is the result of observation
• Positive outcomes increase likelihood of copying actions in the future
Social cognitive theory
Developed out of social learning theory.
Incorporates self-efficacy.
Self-efficacy
Extent to which individuals believe they have the competencies to perform a particular behaviour
High self-efficacy: Difficult tasks can be mastered
Low self-efficacy: Avoid difficult tasks
Influenced by:
• Experience
• Modelling/Vicarious Experience Social
• Persuasion
• Physiological Factors
4 key processes of social cognitive theory
- Attentional
• Presence of a model to which attention is drawn - Retentional
• Memories stored in an accessible format to guide future actions - Motor Reproductive
• Ability to reproduce the action - Motivational
• Must have motivation to reproduce the action
Operant learning theory
Observational learning is a variation of operant learning.
This approach does not deny the importance of Bandura’s 4 key
processes but instead views them differently.
4 key processes of operant learning theory
Attention: the influence of environmental events on our
behaviour, often measured in terms of overt behaviour.
Retention: Acts the observer performs, covertly or overtly, that
can improve performance.
Motor reproduction: Overt performance (imitation) of behaviour by the observer.
Motivation: Reinforcement for performing a behaviour.
Rule-governed behaviour
Don’t just learn through watching; indirect learning also occurs through language.
Rules can be a verbal description of a contingency
• Quick form of learning (if we follow the rule)
• Information provided about consequences for behaviour (just tell someone what to do).
Limits
Experience always trumps knowledge for complex skills (need to practice)
• Can be inflexible and persistent (can get locked into the instructions given)
Personal rules
Verbal descriptions or contingencies that
we present to ourselves to influence our behaviour
Say-do correspondence
When there is a close match between what we say we will do, and what we actually do.
Need to be clear about details of rules (specificity and clarity).
Educational applications
General classroom instruction.
Learning appropriate social/group behaviour.
Children with learning difficulties - down syndrome, autism.
Social change
Use of technology
Environmental behaviours
Modelling healthy behaviours such as healthy eating
Increasing physical activity
Clinical applications
Observational conditioning: development and treatment of phobias
Modelling of dieting behaviours is associated with dieting behaviour
