3A: Operant Conditioning and Schedules of Reinforcement

Question 1

Principles of operant conditioning

Answer 1

Involves the strengthening or weakening of a behaviour as a result of the consequences.
Behaviours are voluntary or goal-directed.
The consequence of the behaviour affects future occurrences of that behaviour.
Reinforcers strengthen behaviours, punishers reduce a behaviour.

Question 2

Law of effect

Answer 2

Behaviour is controlled by its consequences.
Behaviours that result in pleasant consequences will be more likely in the future.
Behaviours that result in unpleasant consequences will be less likely in the future.

Question 3

Two types of behaviours

Answer 3

Reflexive type: involuntary, named respondent behaviour.

Operant: voluntary, behaviours controlled by consequences.

Question 4

Operant antecedents

Answer 4

Discriminative stimulus (S^D): Indicates that a response will be followed by a contingency (reinforcer or punisher) e.g. light signals pressing a lever will now produce food.

Question 5

Positive reinforcement

Answer 5

When behaviour is strengthened because it is followed by a reinforcing or rewarding stimulus
e.g. smile at someone (R) -> person smiles back (S^R)

Question 6

Negative reinforcement

Answer 6

When behaviour is strengthened because it is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus
e.g. Take a panadol (R) -> eliminate a headache (S^R)

Question 7

Escape learning

Answer 7

Learning of a response that allows a subject to escape an aversive stimulus (e.g. switch off an electric shock).

Question 8

Avoidance learning

Answer 8

Learning of a response that allows a subject to avoid an aversive stimulus.
e.g. learning that when a light comes on the shock is about to start and they much press the bar to prevent the shock.

Question 9

Operant learning

Answer 9

Any procedure or experience in which a behavior becomes stronger or weaker (e.g., more or less likely to occur), depending on its consequences. Also called instrumental learning.

Question 10

Using positive reinforcement

Answer 10

It is important for learning that an organism wants to take part in activities and learns new skills via desired behaviours, not because it is scare of a consequence/being punished.

Question 11

Primary reinforcers

Answer 11

Unlearned
Inherently reinforcing because they satisfy a biological need (e.g. food, water)
Unconditioned reinforcers

Question 12

Secondary reinforcers

Answer 12

Conditioned reinforcers

Are learnt or become reinforcers after being associated with primary reinforcers (e.g. money)

Question 13

Natural reinforcers

Answer 13

Any reinforcer that is the spontaneous consequence of a behavior. Also called automatic reinforcer.
e.g. brush your teeth in the morning and morning breath goes away.

Question 14

Contrived reinforcer

Answer 14

Any reinforcer that is provided by someone for the purpose of changing behavior.

Question 15

Contingency

Answer 15

The extent to which the behaviour and the consequence are correlated.
The stronger the correlation, the more effective the reinforcer is likely to be.
e.g. if likely to get food by not pressing lever, won’t continue pressing lever.

Question 16

Contiguity

Answer 16

The gap between a behaviour and its consequence.
In general, the shorter the interval the faster learning occurs.
Usually, if too long left between, can cause confusion.
Some learning can occur despite a delay, however.

Question 17

Reinforcer characteristics

Answer 17

Some reinforcers work better than others.
The size and the strength of the reinforcer can impact conditioning.
Generally, a large reinforcer will be more effective than a small one. BUT frequent small reinforcers may work better.

Question 18

Behaviour characteristics

Answer 18

Certain aspects of a behaviour may be easier to learn than others.
Remember: task difficulty will vary with species and that it is easier to train/teach behaviours that are somewhat aligned to an animals natural behaviour.

Question 19

Motivating operations

Answer 19

Anything that changes the effectiveness of a consequence - either in terms of increasing or decreasing its effectiveness.

Question 20

Establishing operations

Answer 20

Increase the effectiveness of a consequence.

The greater the deprivation the more powerful the reinforcer e.g. food.

Question 21

Abolishing operations

Answer 21

Decrease the effectiveness of a consequence.

Question 22

Drive reduction theory

Answer 22

The event is reinforcing if it is associated with a reduction of a physiological drive (primary reinforcer).
Not comprehensive enough, unsatisfactory explination of reinforcers.

Question 23

Premack’s principle

Answer 23

Helps us understand what can be used as a reinforcer.
High probability behaviour can be used to reinforce a low probability behaviour.
Reinforcers as behaviours and reinforcement as a sequence of two behaviours:
1. Behaviour being reinforced
2. Behaviour that is the reinforcer
e.g. rats running get a drink

Question 24

Response deprivation hypothesis

Answer 24

The theory of reinforcement that says a behavior is reinforcing to the extent that the organism has been deprived (relative to its baseline frequency) of performing that behavior.

Question 25

Behavioural bliss point approach

Answer 25

An organism that has free access to alternative activities will organise its behaviour to maximise its overall (optimal) reinforcement.

Question 26

Escape behaviour (theory of avoidance)

Answer 26

Performing a behaviour stops an aversive stimulus, and as such strengthens that behaviour

Question 27

Avoidance behaviour (theory of avoidance)

Answer 27

Performing a behaviour prevents an aversive stimulus from happening, and as such strengthens that behaviour.

Question 28

Two-process theory of avoidance

Answer 28

The view that avoidance and punishment involves two procedures—classical conditioning (fear response) and operant learning (negative reinforcement).

Question 29

Two-process theory of avoidance problem

Answer 29

Avoidance responses can be extremely persistent.
Possible explanation: anxiety conservation hypothesis - avoidance behaviours occur so quickly that there is insufficient exposure to the CS for extinction to take place.

Question 30

One-process theory

Answer 30

Escape and avoidance behaviours are reinforced by the reduction of the aversive stimulus.

Question 31

Acquisition

Answer 31

The initial stage of learning - learning a pattern of responding or the association between behaviour and reinforcer.
A gradual process that requires shaping.

Question 32

Shaping

Answer 32

The reinforcement of closer and closer approximations of the desired behaviour.
Important when subject does not on its own perform the desired behaviour.

Question 33

Extinction

Answer 33

The gradual weakening and elimination of the response tendency.
Achieved through halting the reinforcement. The time this takes depends on how resistant the subject is to extinction.
If the response ceases, it has been extinguished.

Question 34

Chaining

Answer 34

Training a person or animal to perform a sequence of behaviours.
Involves breaking down a behaviour or sequence into its components using task analysis. Then reinforcing the performance of each component.

Question 35

Forward chaining

Answer 35

Reinforce the first component, then when it is performed we add the second component reinforcing performance of the two together until this is completed without hesitation, then add the third and so on.

Question 36

Backward chaining

Answer 36

Starting with the last link in the chain and building towards the first component.
This is often the more efficient and easier approach.

Question 37

Continuous reinforcement (CRF)

Answer 37

Every occurance of an operant response is followed by a reinforcer.

Question 38

Intermittent reinforcement

Answer 38

Only some occurrences of the operant response are followed by a reinforcer.
Close alignment with life.
Steady-state behaviours emerge once there has been considerable exposure to the schedule.

Question 39

Fixed ratio schedule (FR)

Answer 39

Reinforcement depends upon a fixed/predictable number of responses emitted since the last reinforcer.
FR4 = the 4th response is followed by reinforcement.
Post-reinforcement pause.
Low resistance to extinction

Question 40

Variable ratio schedule (VR)

Answer 40

Reinforcement depends upon a variable/unpredictable number of responses emitted since the last reinforcer.
High and steady response rates
Little or no post-reinforcement pauses.
High resistance to extinction.

Question 41

Fixed interval schedule (FI)

Answer 41

A response is reinforced when a fixed/predictable period of time has elapsed since the last reinforcer.
Scallop pattern of responding
Post-reinforcement pause
Low resistance to extinction

Question 42

Variable interval schedule (VI)

Answer 42

A response is reinforced when a variable/unpredictable period of time has elapsed since the last reinforcer.
Moderate-steady rate of responding
No post-reinforcement pause
High resistance to extinction

Question 43

Extinction burst

Answer 43

Temporary increase in frequency and intensity of responding when implemented

Question 44

Side effects of extinction

Answer 44

Extinction burst
Increase in variability
Emotional behaviour
Aggression
Resurgence
Depression

Question 45

Resurgence

Answer 45

Unusual but like regression - reappearance of previously successful behaviour

Question 46

Spontaneous recovery

Answer 46

Reappearance of extinguished response after rest period

Repeated effects required for learning due to presence of discriminative stimulus.

Question 47

Differential reinforcement of other behaviour (DRO)

Answer 47

Simultaneously extinguish behaviour while reinforcing alternative behaviour
No deprivation of reinforcement in the setting, thus reducing likely side effects and can achieve desired outcome but for alternativ behavioural processes.

Question 48

Duration schedules

Answer 48

A behaviour muse be performed continuously for a period of time (either fixed or variable)

Question 49

Time schedules

Answer 49

A reinforcer is delivered after a period of time (either fixed or variable) regardless of what behaviour occurs.

Question 50

Progressive schedules

Answer 50

The requirement for the reinforcement increases in a predetermined way following each reinforcement

Question 51

Chained schedules

Answer 51

Sequence of simple schedules in a specific order

Question 52

Multiple schedules

Answer 52

A mix of 2 or more simple schedules

Question 53

Mixed schedules

Answer 53

Requirements for reinforcement are a combination of two or more simple schedules

Question 54

Cooperative schudules

Answer 54

Reinforcement is contingent on the behaviour of two or more individuals

Question 55

Concurrent schedules

Answer 55

Two or more schedules are available at once and the individual or animal must choose between them

Question 56

The discrimination hypothesis

Answer 56

Extinction takes longer after intermittent reinforcement because it is harder to discriminate between an intermittent schedule and extinction, than it is to discriminate between continuous reinforcement and an extinction procedure.

Question 57

The frustration hypothesis

Answer 57

Non-reinforcement of a previously reinforced behaviour is frustrating and as frustration is an aversive state, anything that reduces frustration will be reinforcing.
In a partial reinforcement schedule, performing the behaviour becomes a reinforcer for reducing frustration and as such continues during a phase of extinction.

Question 58

The sequential hypothesis

Answer 58

The idea that the partial reinforcement effect occurs because the sequence of reinforced and nonreinforced behaviors during intermittent reinforcement becomes a signal for responding during extinction.

Question 59

The response unit hypothesis

Answer 59

The partial reinforcement effect is due to differences in the definition of a behaviour during intermittent and continuous reinforcement.

Question 60

Matching law

Answer 60

The principle that, given the opportunity to respond on two or more reinforcement schedules, the rate of responding on each schedule will match the reinforcement available on each schedule.
e.g. 10% of reward, 10% use this option.

Question 61

Melioration Theory

Answer 61

Distribution of behaviour in a choice situation shifts toward those alternatives that have higher value regardless of the long-term effect on the overall amount of reinforcement