Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

A Level AQA Biology > 5.5: Antibodies > Flashcards

5.5: Antibodies Flashcards

You may prefer our related Brainscape-certified flashcards:
AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Antibodies

A

Antibodies are proteins with specific binding sites synthesised by B cells

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

Antibodies are proteins with specific binding sites synthesised by B cells.
When the body is infected by non-self material, what does a B cell do?

A

When the body is infected by non-self material, a B cell produces a specific antibody

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

Antibodies are proteins with specific binding sites synthesised by B cells.
When the body is infected by non-self material, a B cell produces a specific antibody.
This specific antibody reacts with an antigen on the surface of the non-self material by doing what?

A

This specific antibody reacts with an antigen on the surface of the non-self material by binding to them

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

What does the primary immune response establish?

A

The primary immune response establishes immunological memory

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

Antibodies are proteins with specific binding sites synthesised by B cells.
When the body is infected by non-self material, a B cell produces a specific antibody.
This specific antibody reacts with an antigen on the surface of the non-self material by binding to them.
Each antibody has 2 identical what?

A

Each antibody has 2 identical binding sites

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

Antibodies are proteins with specific binding sites synthesised by B cells.
When the body is infected by non-self material, a B cell produces a specific antibody.
This specific antibody reacts with an antigen on the surface of the non-self material by binding to them.
Each antibody has 2 identical binding sites.
Describe the antibody binding sites

A

The antibody binding sites are complementary to a specific antigen

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

Antibodies are proteins with specific binding sites synthesised by B cells.
When the body is infected by non-self material, a B cell produces a specific antibody.
This specific antibody reacts with an antigen on the surface of the non-self material by binding to them.
Each antibody has 2 identical binding sites.
The antibody binding sites are complementary to a specific antigen.
How is the massive variety of antibodies possible?

A

The massive variety of antibodies is possible, because they are made of proteins

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

Antibodies are proteins with specific binding sites synthesised by B cells.
When the body is infected by non-self material, a B cell produces a specific antibody.
This specific antibody reacts with an antigen on the surface of the non-self material by binding to them.
Each antibody has 2 identical binding sites.
The antibody binding sites are complementary to a specific antigen.
The massive variety of antibodies is possible, because they are made of proteins - molecules that occur how?

A

The massive variety of antibodies is possible, because they are made of proteins - molecules that occur in an almost infinite number of forms

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

What are antibodies made up of?

A

Antibodies are made up of 4 polypeptide chains

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

Antibodies are made up of 4 polypeptide chains.

The chains of one pair are what and are called what?

A

Antibodies are made up of 4 polypeptide chains.
The chains of one pair are:
1. Long
2. Called heavy chains

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

Antibodies are made up of 4 polypeptide chains.
The chains of one pair are long and are called heavy chains, while the chains of the other pair are what and are known as what?

A

The:
1. Chains of one pair are long and are called heavy chains
,while
2. Chains of the other pair are shorter and are known as light chains

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

Antibodies are made up of 4 polypeptide chains.
The chains of one pair are long and are called heavy chains, while the chains of the other pair are shorter and are known as light chains.
Each antibody has a specific binding site that fits very precisely onto a specific antigen to form what is known as what?

A

Each antibody has a specific binding site that fits very precisely onto a specific antigen to form what is known as an antigen-antibody complex

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

Antibodies are made up of 4 polypeptide chains.
The chains of one pair are long and are called heavy chains, while the chains of the other pair are shorter and are known as light chains.
Each antibody has a specific binding site that fits very precisely onto a specific antigen to form what is known as an antigen-antibody complex.
The binding site is different on different antibodies is therefore called what?

A

The binding site is different on different antibodies is therefore called the variable region

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

Antibodies are made up of 4 polypeptide chains.
The chains of one pair are long and are called heavy chains, while the chains of the other pair are shorter and are known as light chains.
Each antibody has a specific binding site that fits very precisely onto a specific antigen to form what is known as an antigen-antibody complex.
The binding site is different on different antibodies is therefore called the variable region.
What does each binding site consist of?

A

Each binding site consists of a sequence of amino acids

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

Antibodies are made up of 4 polypeptide chains.
The chains of one pair are long and are called heavy chains, while the chains of the other pair are shorter and are known as light chains.
Each antibody has a specific binding site that fits very precisely onto a specific antigen to form what is known as an antigen-antibody complex.
The binding site is different on different antibodies is therefore called the variable region.
Each binding site consists of a sequence of amino acids that do what?

A

Each binding site consists of a sequence of amino acids that form a specific 3D shape

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

Antibodies are made up of 4 polypeptide chains.
The chains of one pair are long and are called heavy chains, while the chains of the other pair are shorter and are known as light chains.
Each antibody has a specific binding site that fits very precisely onto a specific antigen to form what is known as an antigen-antibody complex.
The binding site is different on different antibodies is therefore called the variable region.
Each binding site consists of a sequence of amino acids that form a specific 3D shape that does what?

A

Each binding site consists of a sequence of amino acids that form a specific 3D shape that binds directly to a specific antigen

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

Antibodies are made up of 4 polypeptide chains.
The chains of one pair are long and are called heavy chains, while the chains of the other pair are shorter and are known as light chains.
Each antibody has a specific binding site that fits very precisely onto a specific antigen to form what is known as an antigen-antibody complex.
The binding site is different on different antibodies is therefore called the variable region.
Each binding site consists of a sequence of amino acids that form a specific 3D shape that binds directly to a specific antigen.
What is the rest of the antibody known as?

A

The rest of the antibody is known as the constant region

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

Antibodies are made up of 4 polypeptide chains.
The chains of one pair are long and are called heavy chains, while the chains of the other pair are shorter and are known as light chains.
Each antibody has a specific binding site that fits very precisely onto a specific antigen to form what is known as an antigen-antibody complex.
The binding site is different on different antibodies is therefore called the variable region.
Each binding site consists of a sequence of amino acids that form a specific 3D shape that binds directly to a specific antigen.
The rest of the antibody is known as the constant region.
What does the constant region do?

A

The constant region binds to receptors on cells such as B cells

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

What are the same for all antibodies?

A

The constant regions are the same for all antibodies

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

What does the specificity of an antibody depend on?

A

The specificity of an antibody depends on its variable regions

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

Each antibody has a differently shaped what?

A

Each antibody has a differently shaped variable region

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

Each antibody has a differently shaped variable region, due to what?

A

Each antibody has a differently shaped variable region, due to different amino acid sequences

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

Each antibody has a differently shaped variable region, due to different amino acid sequences, that is what?

A

Each antibody has a differently shaped variable region, due to different amino acid sequences, that is complementary to one specific antigen

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

Antibodies are made up of 4 polypeptide chains.
The chains of one pair are long and are called heavy chains, while the chains of the other pair are shorter and are known as light chains.
Each antibody has a specific binding site that fits very precisely onto a specific antigen to form what is known as an antigen-antibody complex.
The binding site is different on different antibodies is therefore called the variable region.
Each binding site consists of a sequence of amino acids that form a specific 3D shape that binds directly to a specific antigen.
The rest of the antibody is known as the constant region.
The constant region binds to receptors on cells such as B cells.
Antibodies also have what between their heavy chains and light chains?

A

Antibodies also have hinge regions between their:

  1. Heavy chains
  2. Light chains
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

Antibodies are made up of 4 polypeptide chains.
The chains of one pair are long and are called heavy chains, while the chains of the other pair are shorter and are known as light chains.
Each antibody has a specific binding site that fits very precisely onto a specific antigen to form what is known as an antigen-antibody complex.
The binding site is different on different antibodies is therefore called the variable region.
Each binding site consists of a sequence of amino acids that form a specific 3D shape that binds directly to a specific antigen.
The rest of the antibody is known as the constant region.
The constant region binds to receptors on cells such as B cells.
Antibodies also have hinge regions between their heavy chains and light chains.
There are 2 what between the 2 heavy chains?

A

There are 2 disulphide bridges between the 2 heavy chains

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

Antibodies do not destroy antigens directly, but rather do what?

A

Antibodies do not destroy antigens directly, but rather prepare the antigen for destruction

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

Antibodies do not destroy antigens directly, but rather prepare the antigen for destruction.
Different antibodies lead to the destruction of an antigen how?

A

Different antibodies lead to the destruction of an antigen in a range of ways

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

Antibodies do not destroy antigens directly, but rather prepare the antigen for destruction.
Different antibodies lead to the destruction of an antigen in a range of ways.
For example, when the antigen is a bacterial cell, how do antibodies assist in its destruction?

A

For example, when the antigen is a bacterial cell, antibodies assist in its destruction in 2 ways:

  1. They cause agglutination of the bacterial cells
  2. They then serve as markers
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

Antibodies do not destroy antigens directly, but rather prepare the antigen for destruction.
Different antibodies lead to the destruction of an antigen in a range of ways.
For example, when the antigen is a bacterial cell, antibodies assist in its destruction in 2 ways - They cause agglutination of the bacterial cells and they then serve as markers.
With agglutination, what are formed?

A

With agglutination, clumps of bacterial cells are formed

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q

Antibodies do not destroy antigens directly, but rather prepare the antigen for destruction.
Different antibodies lead to the destruction of an antigen in a range of ways.
For example, when the antigen is a bacterial cell, antibodies assist in its destruction in 2 ways - They cause agglutination of the bacterial cells and they then serve as markers.
With agglutination, clumps of bacterial cells are formed, as the antibodies cause them to do what?

A

With agglutination, clumps of bacterial cells are formed, as the antibodies cause them to stick together

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

Antibodies do not destroy antigens directly, but rather prepare the antigen for destruction.
Different antibodies lead to the destruction of an antigen in a range of ways.
For example, when the antigen is a bacterial cell, antibodies assist in its destruction in 2 ways - They cause agglutination of the bacterial cells and they then serve as markers.
With agglutination, clumps of bacterial cells are formed, as the antibodies cause them to stick together.
What does this do?

A

This makes it easier for the phagocytes to:
1. Locate
2. Engulf
them

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q

Antibodies do not destroy antigens directly, but rather prepare the antigen for destruction.
Different antibodies lead to the destruction of an antigen in a range of ways.
For example, when the antigen is a bacterial cell, antibodies assist in its destruction in 2 ways - They cause agglutination of the bacterial cells and they then serve as markers.
With agglutination, clumps of bacterial cells are formed, as the antibodies cause them to stick together.
This makes it easier for the phagocytes to locate and engulf them, as they are less what?

A

This makes it easier for the phagocytes to:
1. Locate
2. Engulf
them, as they are less spread-out within the body

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q

Antibodies do not destroy antigens directly, but rather prepare the antigen for destruction.
Different antibodies lead to the destruction of an antigen in a range of ways.
For example, when the antigen is a bacterial cell, antibodies assist in its destruction in 2 ways - They cause agglutination of the bacterial cells and they then serve as markers.
With agglutination, clumps of bacterial cells are formed, as the antibodies cause them to stick together.
This makes it easier for the phagocytes to locate and engulf them, as they are less spread-out within the body.
Antibodies then serve as markers that do what?

A

Antibodies then serve as markers that stimulate phagocytes to engulf the bacterial cells to which they are attached

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
34
Q

Why is agglutination possible?

A

Agglutination is possible, because each antibody has 2 antigen binding sites

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
35
Q

Neutralisation:

Some pathogens make us ill by doing what?

A

Some pathogens make us ill by producing toxins

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
36
Q

Neutralisation:
Some pathogens make us ill by producing toxins.
Some antibodies work by doing what?

A

Some antibodies work by neutralising these toxins

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
37
Q

Viruses have proteins on their surface that do what?

A

Viruses have proteins on their surface that:
1. Recognise
2. Bind to
receptors on the surface of the host cell

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
38
Q

Viruses have proteins on their surface that recognise and bind to receptors on the surface of the host cell.
This is how many viruses do what?

A

This is how many viruses enter their host cell

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
39
Q

Viruses have proteins on their surface that recognise and bind to receptors on the surface of the host cell.
This is how many viruses enter their host cell.
What can antibodies do?

A

Antibodies can:

  1. Bind to viruses
  2. Stop them attaching to their host cells
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
40
Q

A bacterium or other microorganism entering the body is likely to have many hundreds of different antigens on its surface.
Each antigen will do what?

A

Each antigen will induce a different B cell to:

  1. Multiply
  2. Form a clone of itself
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
41
Q

A bacterium or other microorganism entering the body is likely to have many hundreds of different antigens on its surface.
Each antigen will induce a different B cell to multiply and form a clone of itself.
Each of these clones will produce a different what?

A

Each of these clones will produce a different antibody

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
42
Q

A bacterium or other microorganism entering the body is likely to have many hundreds of different antigens on its surface.
Each antigen will induce a different B cell to multiply and form a clone of itself.
Each of these clones will produce a different antibody.
It is of considerable medical value to be able to produce antibodies where?

A

It is of considerable medical value to be able to produce antibodies outside of the body

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
43
Q

A bacterium or other microorganism entering the body is likely to have many hundreds of different antigens on its surface.
Each antigen will induce a different B cell to multiply and form a clone of itself.
Each of these clones will produce a different antibody.
It is of considerable medical value to be able to produce antibodies outside of the body.
It is even better if a single type of antibody can be what?

A

It is even better if a single type of antibody can be:

  1. Isolated
  2. Cloned
44
Q

A bacterium or other microorganism entering the body is likely to have many hundreds of different antigens on its surface.
Each antigen will induce a different B cell to multiply and form a clone of itself.
Each of these clones will produce a different antibody.
It is of considerable medical value to be able to produce antibodies outside of the body.
It is even better if a single type of antibody can be isolated and cloned.
What are such antibodies known as?

A

Such antibodies are known as monoclonal antibodies

45
Q

Monoclonal antibodies have a number of useful functions where?

A

Monoclonal antibodies have a number of useful functions in:

  1. Science
  2. Medicine
46
Q

As an antibody is very specific to a particular antigen (protein), monoclonal antibodies can be used to do what?

A

As an antibody is very specific to a particular antigen (protein), monoclonal antibodies can be used to target:

  1. Specific substances
  2. Specific cells
47
Q

As an antibody is very specific to a particular antigen (protein), monoclonal antibodies can be used to target specific substances and specific cells.
One type of cell they can target is cancer cells.
Monoclonal antibodies can be used to treat cancer in a number of ways.
What is by far the most successful way to treat cancer so far?

A

By far the most successful way to treat cancer so far is direct monoclonal antibody therapy

48
Q

As an antibody is very specific to a particular antigen (protein), monoclonal antibodies can be used to target specific substances and specific cells.
One type of cell they can target is cancer cells.
Monoclonal antibodies can be used to treat cancer in a number of ways.
By far the most successful way to treat cancer so far is direct monoclonal antibody therapy.
Monoclonal antibodies are produced that are specific to what?

A

Monoclonal antibodies are produced that are specific to antigens on cancer cells

49
Q

As an antibody is very specific to a particular antigen (protein), monoclonal antibodies can be used to target specific substances and specific cells.
One type of cell they can target is cancer cells.
Monoclonal antibodies can be used to treat cancer in a number of ways.
By far the most successful way to treat cancer so far is direct monoclonal antibody therapy.
Monoclonal antibodies are produced that are specific to antigens on cancer cells.
These antibodies are given to a patient and attach themselves to what?

A

These antibodies:

  1. Are given to a patient
  2. Attach themselves to the receptors on their cancer cells
50
Q

As an antibody is very specific to a particular antigen (protein), monoclonal antibodies can be used to target specific substances and specific cells.
One type of cell they can target is cancer cells.
Monoclonal antibodies can be used to treat cancer in a number of ways.
By far the most successful way to treat cancer so far is direct monoclonal antibody therapy.
Monoclonal antibodies are produced that are specific to antigens on cancer cells.
These antibodies are given to a patient and attach themselves to the receptors on their cancer cells.
The antibodies attach to the surface of their cancer cells and block what?

A

The antibodies:

  1. Attach to the surface of their cancer cells
  2. Block the chemical signals that stimulate their uncontrolled growth
51
Q

As an antibody is very specific to a particular antigen (protein), monoclonal antibodies can be used to target specific substances and specific cells.
One type of cell they can target is cancer cells.
Monoclonal antibodies can be used to treat cancer in a number of ways.
By far the most successful way to treat cancer so far is direct monoclonal antibody therapy.
Monoclonal antibodies are produced that are specific to antigens on cancer cells.
These antibodies are given to a patient and attach themselves to the receptors on their cancer cells.
The antibodies attach to the surface of their cancer cells and block the chemical signals that stimulate their uncontrolled growth.
What is an example?

A

An example of herceptin

52
Q

As an antibody is very specific to a particular antigen (protein), monoclonal antibodies can be used to target specific substances and specific cells.
One type of cell they can target is cancer cells.
Monoclonal antibodies can be used to treat cancer in a number of ways.
By far the most successful way to treat cancer so far is direct monoclonal antibody therapy.
Monoclonal antibodies are produced that are specific to antigens on cancer cells.
These antibodies are given to a patient and attach themselves to the receptors on their cancer cells.
The antibodies attach to the surface of their cancer cells and block the chemical signals that stimulate their uncontrolled growth.
An example of herceptin, a monoclonal antibody used to treat what?

A

An example of herceptin, a monoclonal antibody used to treat breast cancer

53
Q

As an antibody is very specific to a particular antigen (protein), monoclonal antibodies can be used to target specific substances and specific cells.
One type of cell they can target is cancer cells.
Monoclonal antibodies can be used to treat cancer in a number of ways.
By far the most successful way to treat cancer so far is direct monoclonal antibody therapy.
Monoclonal antibodies are produced that are specific to antigens on cancer cells.
These antibodies are given to a patient and attach themselves to the receptors on their cancer cells.
The antibodies attach to the surface of their cancer cells and block the chemical signals that stimulate their uncontrolled growth.
An example of herceptin, a monoclonal antibody used to treat breast cancer.
What is the advantage of direct monoclonal antibody therapy?

A

The advantage of direct monoclonal antibody therapy is that since the antibodies are:
1. Not toxic
2. Highly specific
,they lead to fewer side effects than other forms of therapy

54
Q

As an antibody is very specific to a particular antigen (protein), monoclonal antibodies can be used to target specific substances and specific cells.
One type of cell they can target is cancer cells.
Monoclonal antibodies can be used to treat cancer in a number of ways.
By far the most successful way to treat cancer so far is direct monoclonal antibody therapy.
Another method, called what, involves attaching a what drug to the monoclonal antibody?

A 
Another method, called indirect monoclonal antibody therapy, involves attaching a:
1. Radioactive
Or,
2. Cytotoxic
drug to the monoclonal antibody
55
Q

As an antibody is very specific to a particular antigen (protein), monoclonal antibodies can be used to target specific substances and specific cells.
One type of cell they can target is cancer cells.
Monoclonal antibodies can be used to treat cancer in a number of ways.
By far the most successful way to treat cancer so far is direct monoclonal antibody therapy.
Another method, called indirect monoclonal antibody therapy, involves attaching a radioactive or cytotoxic drug (a drug that does what) to the monoclonal antibody?

A 
Another method, called indirect monoclonal antibody therapy, involves attaching a:
1. Radioactive
Or,
2. Cytotoxic (a drug that kills cells)
drug to the monoclonal antibody
56
Q

As an antibody is very specific to a particular antigen (protein), monoclonal antibodies can be used to target specific substances and specific cells.
One type of cell they can target is cancer cells.
Monoclonal antibodies can be used to treat cancer in a number of ways.
By far the most successful way to treat cancer so far is direct monoclonal antibody therapy.
Another method, called indirect monoclonal antibody therapy, involves attaching a radioactive or cytotoxic drug (a drug that kills cells) to the monoclonal antibody.
What does the antibody do when it attaches to the cancer cells?

A

When the antibody attaches to the cancer cells, it kills them

57
Q

As an antibody is very specific to a particular antigen (protein), monoclonal antibodies can be used to target specific substances and specific cells.
One type of cell they can target is cancer cells.
Monoclonal antibodies can be used to treat cancer in a number of ways.
By far the most successful way to treat cancer so far is direct monoclonal antibody therapy.
Another method, called indirect monoclonal antibody therapy, involves attaching a radioactive or cytotoxic drug (a drug that kills cells) to the monoclonal antibody.
When the antibody attaches to the cancer cells, it kills them.
Cancer cells have antigens called what that are not found on normal body cells?

A

Cancer cells have antigens called tumour markers that are not found on normal body cells

58
Q

As an antibody is very specific to a particular antigen (protein), monoclonal antibodies can be used to target specific substances and specific cells.
One type of cell they can target is cancer cells.
Monoclonal antibodies can be used to treat cancer in a number of ways.
By far the most successful way to treat cancer so far is direct monoclonal antibody therapy.
Another method, called indirect monoclonal antibody therapy, involves attaching a radioactive or cytotoxic drug (a drug that kills cells) to the monoclonal antibody.
When the antibody attaches to the cancer cells, it kills them.
Cancer cells have antigens called tumour markers that are not found on normal body cells.
Monoclonal antibodies can be made that will bind to the tumour markers.
Anti-cancer drugs can also be attached to the antibodies.
When antibodies come into contact with the cancer cells, what will they do?

A

When antibodies come into contact with the cancer cells, they will bind to the tumour markers

59
Q

As an antibody is very specific to a particular antigen (protein), monoclonal antibodies can be used to target specific substances and specific cells.
One type of cell they can target is cancer cells.
Monoclonal antibodies can be used to treat cancer in a number of ways.
By far the most successful way to treat cancer so far is direct monoclonal antibody therapy.
Another method, called indirect monoclonal antibody therapy, involves attaching a radioactive or cytotoxic drug (a drug that kills cells) to the monoclonal antibody.
When the antibody attaches to the cancer cells, it kills them.
Cancer cells have antigens called tumour markers that are not found on normal body cells.
Monoclonal antibodies can be made that will bind to the tumour markers.
Anti-cancer drugs can also be attached to the antibodies.
When antibodies come into contact with the cancer cells, they will bind to the tumour markers.
What does this result in the drug doing?

A

This results in the drug accumulating in the body where there are cancer cells

60
Q

As an antibody is very specific to a particular antigen (protein), monoclonal antibodies can be used to target specific substances and specific cells.
One type of cell they can target is cancer cells.
Monoclonal antibodies can be used to treat cancer in a number of ways.
By far the most successful way to treat cancer so far is direct monoclonal antibody therapy.
Another method, called indirect monoclonal antibody therapy, involves attaching a radioactive or cytotoxic drug (a drug that kills cells) to the monoclonal antibody.
When the antibody attaches to the cancer cells, it kills them.
Cancer cells have antigens called tumour markers that are not found on normal body cells.
Monoclonal antibodies can be made that will bind to the tumour markers.
Anti-cancer drugs can also be attached to the antibodies.
When antibodies come into contact with the cancer cells, they will bind to the tumour markers.
This results in the drug accumulating in the body where there are cancer cells.
Therefore, the side effects of an antibody-based drug are lower than other drugs, why?

A

Therefore, the side effects of an antibody-based drug are lower than other drugs, because they accumulate near specific cells

61
Q

As an antibody is very specific to a particular antigen (protein), monoclonal antibodies can be used to target specific substances and specific cells.
One type of cell they can target is cancer cells.
Monoclonal antibodies can be used to treat cancer in a number of ways.
By far the most successful way to treat cancer so far is direct monoclonal antibody therapy.
Another method, called indirect monoclonal antibody therapy, involves attaching a radioactive or cytotoxic drug (a drug that kills cells) to the monoclonal antibody.
What are monoclonal antibodies used in this way referred to as?

A

Monoclonal antibodies used in this way are referred to as ‘magic bullets’

62
Q

As an antibody is very specific to a particular antigen (protein), monoclonal antibodies can be used to target specific substances and specific cells.
One type of cell they can target is cancer cells.
Monoclonal antibodies can be used to treat cancer in a number of ways.
By far the most successful way to treat cancer so far is direct monoclonal antibody therapy.
Another method, called indirect monoclonal antibody therapy, involves attaching a radioactive or cytotoxic drug (a drug that kills cells) to the monoclonal antibody.
Monoclonal antibodies used in this way are referred to as ‘magic bullets’ and can be used in what doses?

A

Monoclonal antibodies used in this way:

  1. Are referred to as ‘magic bullets’
  2. Can be used in smaller doses
63
Q

As an antibody is very specific to a particular antigen (protein), monoclonal antibodies can be used to target specific substances and specific cells.
One type of cell they can target is cancer cells.
Monoclonal antibodies can be used to treat cancer in a number of ways.
By far the most successful way to treat cancer so far is direct monoclonal antibody therapy.
Another method, called indirect monoclonal antibody therapy, involves attaching a radioactive or cytotoxic drug (a drug that kills cells) to the monoclonal antibody.
Monoclonal antibodies used in this way are referred to as ‘magic bullets’ and can be used in smaller doses, as they are what?

A

Monoclonal antibodies used in this way:
1. Are referred to as ‘magic bullets’
2. Can be used in smaller doses
,as they are targeted to specific sites

64
Q

As an antibody is very specific to a particular antigen (protein), monoclonal antibodies can be used to target specific substances and specific cells.
One type of cell they can target is cancer cells.
Monoclonal antibodies can be used to treat cancer in a number of ways.
By far the most successful way to treat cancer so far is direct monoclonal antibody therapy.
Another method, called indirect monoclonal antibody therapy, involves attaching a radioactive or cytotoxic drug (a drug that kills cells) to the monoclonal antibody.
Monoclonal antibodies used in this way are referred to as ‘magic bullets’ and can be used in smaller doses, as they are targeted to specific sites.
Using them in smaller doses is not only what, but also reduces any what?

A

Using them in smaller doses:
1. Is not only cheaper
,but also
2. Reduces any side effects the drug might have

65
Q

Monoclonal antibodies are in invaluable tool in diagnosing disease with over 100 different diagnostic products based on them.
They are important in diagnosing certain cancers.
Example

A

For example, men with prostate cancer often produce more of a protein called prostate specific antigen (PSA), leading to unusually high levels of it in the blood

66
Q

Monoclonal antibodies are in invaluable tool in diagnosing disease with over 100 different diagnostic products based on them.
They are important in diagnosing certain cancers.
For example, men with prostate cancer often produce more of a protein called prostate specific antigen (PSA), leading to unusually high levels of it in the blood.
By using a monoclonal antibody that interacts with this antigen, what is it possible to obtain?

A

By using a monoclonal antibody that interacts with this antigen, it is possible to obtain a measure of the level of PSA in a sample of blood

67
Q

Monoclonal antibodies are in invaluable tool in diagnosing disease with over 100 different diagnostic products based on them.
They are important in diagnosing certain cancers.
For example, men with prostate cancer often produce more of a protein called prostate specific antigen (PSA), leading to unusually high levels of it in the blood.
By using a monoclonal antibody that interacts with this antigen, it is possible to obtain a measure of the level of PSA in a sample of blood.
While a higher than normal level of PSA is not itself diagnostic of the disease, what does it give an early warning of?

A

While a higher than normal level of PSA is not itself diagnostic of the disease, it gives an early warning of:

  1. Its possibility
  2. The need for further tests
68
Q

It is important that a mother knows as early as possible that she is pregnant, because there are certain actions she can take to ensure the welfare of herself and her unborn baby.
The use of pregnancy testing kits that can easily be used at home has made the early detection of a pregnancy possible.
What do these pregnancy testing kits rely on?

A

These pregnancy testing kits rely on the fact that:

  1. The placenta produces a hormone called hCG
  2. This is found in the mother’s urine
69
Q

It is important that a mother knows as early as possible that she is pregnant, because there are certain actions she can take to ensure the welfare of herself and her unborn baby.
The use of pregnancy testing kits that can easily be used at home has made the early detection of a pregnancy possible.
Thee pregnancy testing kits rely on the fact that the placenta produces a hormone called hCG and that this is found in the mother’s urine.
What does hCG stand for?

A

hCG stands for human chorionic gonadotropin

70
Q

It is important that a mother knows as early as possible that she is pregnant, because there are certain actions she can take to ensure the welfare of herself and her unborn baby.
The use of pregnancy testing kits that can easily be used at home has made the early detection of a pregnancy possible.
Thee pregnancy testing kits rely on the fact that the placenta produces a hormone called hCG and that this is found in the mother’s urine.
What happens to monoclonal antibodies present on the what of a home pregnancy testing kit?

A

Monoclonal antibodies present on the test strip of a home pregnancy testing kit are linked to coloured particles

71
Q

It is important that a mother knows as early as possible that she is pregnant, because there are certain actions she can take to ensure the welfare of herself and her unborn baby.
The use of pregnancy testing kits that can easily be used at home has made the early detection of a pregnancy possible.
Thee pregnancy testing kits rely on the fact that the placenta produces a hormone called hCG and that this is found in the mother’s urine.
Monoclonal antibodies present on the test strip of a home pregnancy testing kit are linked to coloured particles.
If hCG is present in the urine, what does it do?

A

If hCG is present in the urine, it binds to these antibodies

72
Q

It is important that a mother knows as early as possible that she is pregnant, because there are certain actions she can take to ensure the welfare of herself and her unborn baby.
The use of pregnancy testing kits that can easily be used at home has made the early detection of a pregnancy possible.
Thee pregnancy testing kits rely on the fact that the placenta produces a hormone called hCG and that this is found in the mother’s urine.
Monoclonal antibodies present on the test strip of a home pregnancy testing kit are linked to coloured particles.
If hCG is present in the urine, it binds to these antibodies.
What moves along the strip?

A

The hCG-antibody-colour complex moves along the strip

73
Q

It is important that a mother knows as early as possible that she is pregnant, because there are certain actions she can take to ensure the welfare of herself and her unborn baby.
The use of pregnancy testing kits that can easily be used at home has made the early detection of a pregnancy possible.
Thee pregnancy testing kits rely on the fact that the placenta produces a hormone called hCG and that this is found in the mother’s urine.
Monoclonal antibodies present on the test strip of a home pregnancy testing kit are linked to coloured particles.
If hCG is present in the urine, it binds to these antibodies.
The hCG-antibody-colour complex moves along the strip until it is what?

A

The hCG-antibody-colour complex moves along the strip until it is trapped by a different type of antibody

74
Q

It is important that a mother knows as early as possible that she is pregnant, because there are certain actions she can take to ensure the welfare of herself and her unborn baby.
The use of pregnancy testing kits that can easily be used at home has made the early detection of a pregnancy possible.
Thee pregnancy testing kits rely on the fact that the placenta produces a hormone called hCG and that this is found in the mother’s urine.
Monoclonal antibodies present on the test strip of a home pregnancy testing kit are linked to coloured particles.
If hCG is present in the urine, it binds to these antibodies.
The hCG-antibody-colour complex moves along the strip until it is trapped by a different type of antibody, creating what?

A

The hCG-antibody-colour complex moves along the strip until it is trapped by a different type of antibody, creating a coloured line

75
Q

The use of monoclonal antibodies raises some ethnical issues:
1. What does production of monoclonal antibodies involve?

A

Production of monoclonal antibodies involves the use of mice

76
Q

The use of monoclonal antibodies raises some ethnical issues:
1. Production of monoclonal antibodies involves the use of mice.
What are these mice used to do?

A

These mice are used to produce both:

  1. Antibodies
  2. Tumour cells
77
Q

The use of monoclonal antibodies raises some ethnical issues:
1. Production of monoclonal antibodies involves the use of mice.
These mice are used to produce both antibodies and tumour cells.
The production of tumour cells involves deliberately doing what?

A

The production of tumour cells involves deliberately inducing cancer in mice

78
Q

The use of monoclonal antibodies raises some ethnical issues:
1. Production of monoclonal antibodies involves the use of mice.
These mice are used to produce both antibodies and tumour cells.
The production of tumour cells involves deliberately inducing cancer in mice.
Some people still have reservations about using in this way, despite what?

A

Some people still have reservations about using in this way, despite the specific guidelines drawn up to minimise any suffering

79
Q

The use of monoclonal antibodies raises some ethnical issues:
1. Production of monoclonal antibodies involves the use of mice.
These mice are used to produce both antibodies and tumour cells.
The production of tumour cells involves deliberately inducing cancer in mice.
Some people still have reservations about using in this way, despite the specific guidelines drawn up to minimise any suffering.
2. Monoclonal antibodies have been used successfully to treat a number of diseases, including what, saving many lives?

A

Monoclonal antibodies have been used successfully to treat a number of diseases, including:
1. Cancer
2. Diabetes
,saving many lives

80
Q

The use of monoclonal antibodies raises some ethnical issues:
1. Production of monoclonal antibodies involves the use of mice.
These mice are used to produce both antibodies and tumour cells.
The production of tumour cells involves deliberately inducing cancer in mice.
Some people still have reservations about using in this way, despite the specific guidelines drawn up to minimise any suffering.
2. Monoclonal antibodies have been used successfully to treat a number of diseases, including cancer and diabetes, saving many lives.
However, there have also been some deaths associated with their use in the treatment of what?

A

There have also been some deaths associated with their use in the treatment of multiple sclerosis

81
Q

The use of monoclonal antibodies raises some ethnical issues:
1. Production of monoclonal antibodies involves the use of mice.
These mice are used to produce both antibodies and tumour cells.
The production of tumour cells involves deliberately inducing cancer in mice.
Some people still have reservations about using in this way, despite the specific guidelines drawn up to minimise any suffering.
2. Monoclonal antibodies have been used successfully to treat a number of diseases, including cancer and diabetes, saving many lives.
However, there have also been some deaths associated with their use in the treatment of multiple sclerosis.
It is important that patients have full knowledge of the risks and benefits of these drugs before giving permission for them to be used (what)?

A

It is important that patients have full knowledge of the risks and benefits of these drugs before giving permission for them to be used (informed consent)

82
Q

The use of monoclonal antibodies raises some ethnical issues:
1. Production of monoclonal antibodies involves the use of mice.
These mice are used to produce both antibodies and tumour cells.
The production of tumour cells involves deliberately inducing cancer in mice.
Some people still have reservations about using in this way, despite the specific guidelines drawn up to minimise any suffering.
2. Monoclonal antibodies have been used successfully to treat a number of diseases, including cancer and diabetes, saving many lives.
However, there have also been some deaths associated with their use in the treatment of multiple sclerosis.
It is important that patients have full knowledge of the risks and benefits of these drugs before giving permission for them to be used (informed consent).
3. What does testing for the safety of new drugs present?

A

Testing for the safety of new drugs presents certain dangers

83
Q

The use of monoclonal antibodies raises some ethnical issues:
1. Production of monoclonal antibodies involves the use of mice.
These mice are used to produce both antibodies and tumour cells.
The production of tumour cells involves deliberately inducing cancer in mice.
Some people still have reservations about using in this way, despite the specific guidelines drawn up to minimise any suffering.
2. Monoclonal antibodies have been used successfully to treat a number of diseases, including cancer and diabetes, saving many lives.
However, there have also been some deaths associated with their use in the treatment of multiple sclerosis.
It is important that patients have full knowledge of the risks and benefits of these drugs before giving permission for them to be used (informed consent).
3. Testing for the safety of new drugs presents certain dangers.
What happened in March 2006?

A

In March 2006, 6 healthy volunteers took part in the trial of a new monoclonal antibody in London

84
Q

The use of monoclonal antibodies raises some ethnical issues:
1. Production of monoclonal antibodies involves the use of mice.
These mice are used to produce both antibodies and tumour cells.
The production of tumour cells involves deliberately inducing cancer in mice.
Some people still have reservations about using in this way, despite the specific guidelines drawn up to minimise any suffering.
2. Monoclonal antibodies have been used successfully to treat a number of diseases, including cancer and diabetes, saving many lives.
However, there have also been some deaths associated with their use in the treatment of multiple sclerosis.
It is important that patients have full knowledge of the risks and benefits of these drugs before giving permission for them to be used (informed consent).
3. Testing for the safety of new drugs presents certain dangers.
In March 2006, 6 healthy volunteers took part in the trial of a new monoclonal antibody (what) in London?

A

In March 2006, 6 healthy volunteers took part in the trial of a new monoclonal antibody (TGN1412) in London

85
Q

The use of monoclonal antibodies raises some ethnical issues:
1. Production of monoclonal antibodies involves the use of mice.
These mice are used to produce both antibodies and tumour cells.
The production of tumour cells involves deliberately inducing cancer in mice.
Some people still have reservations about using in this way, despite the specific guidelines drawn up to minimise any suffering.
2. Monoclonal antibodies have been used successfully to treat a number of diseases, including cancer and diabetes, saving many lives.
However, there have also been some deaths associated with their use in the treatment of multiple sclerosis.
It is important that patients have full knowledge of the risks and benefits of these drugs before giving permission for them to be used (informed consent).
3. Testing for the safety of new drugs presents certain dangers.
In March 2006, 6 healthy volunteers took part in the trial of a new monoclonal antibody (TGN1412) in London.
What happened within minutes?

A

Within minutes, they suffered multiple organ failure

86
Q

The use of monoclonal antibodies raises some ethnical issues:
1. Production of monoclonal antibodies involves the use of mice.
These mice are used to produce both antibodies and tumour cells.
The production of tumour cells involves deliberately inducing cancer in mice.
Some people still have reservations about using in this way, despite the specific guidelines drawn up to minimise any suffering.
2. Monoclonal antibodies have been used successfully to treat a number of diseases, including cancer and diabetes, saving many lives.
However, there have also been some deaths associated with their use in the treatment of multiple sclerosis.
It is important that patients have full knowledge of the risks and benefits of these drugs before giving permission for them to be used (informed consent).
3. Testing for the safety of new drugs presents certain dangers.
In March 2006, 6 healthy volunteers took part in the trial of a new monoclonal antibody (TGN1412) in London.
Within minutes, they suffered multiple organ failure, probably as a result of what?

A

Within minutes, they suffered multiple organ failure, probably as a result of T cells:
1. Overproducing chemicals that stimulate an immune response
Or,
2. Attacking the body tissues

87
Q

The use of monoclonal antibodies raises some ethnical issues:
1. Production of monoclonal antibodies involves the use of mice.
These mice are used to produce both antibodies and tumour cells.
The production of tumour cells involves deliberately inducing cancer in mice.
Some people still have reservations about using in this way, despite the specific guidelines drawn up to minimise any suffering.
2. Monoclonal antibodies have been used successfully to treat a number of diseases, including cancer and diabetes, saving many lives.
However, there have also been some deaths associated with their use in the treatment of multiple sclerosis.
It is important that patients have full knowledge of the risks and benefits of these drugs before giving permission for them to be used (informed consent).
3. Testing for the safety of new drugs presents certain dangers.
In March 2006, 6 healthy volunteers took part in the trial of a new monoclonal antibody (TGN1412) in London.
Within minutes, they suffered multiple organ failure, probably as a result of T cells overproducing chemicals that stimulate an immune response or attacking the body tissues.
All the volunteers survived, but what does it raise issues about?

A

All the volunteers survived, but it raises issues about the conduct of drug trials

88
Q

We must balance the advantages that a new medicine provides with the dangers that its use might bring.
Only then can we make informed decisions at what levels about the ethical use of drugs such as monoclonal antibodies?

A

Only then can we make informed decisions at:
1. Individual
2. Local
3. National
4. Global
levels about the ethical use of drugs such as monoclonal antibodies

89
Q

Antibody concentration in the primary response:

  1. Infection.
  2. Then what is there?
A

Then there is the lag phase

90
Q

Antibody concentration in the primary response:

  1. Infection.
  2. Then there is the lag phase.
  3. Antibodies produced.
  4. Antibody level rises to do what?
A

Antibody level rises to combat the infection

91
Q

Antibody concentration in the primary response:

  1. Infection.
  2. Then there is the lag phase.
  3. Antibodies produced.
  4. Antibody level rises to combat the infection.
  5. The infection is dealt with.
  6. What does the antibody level then do?
A

The antibody level then declines

92
Q 
Antibody concentration in the primary response:
1. Infection.
2. Then there is the lag phase.
3. Antibodies produced.
4. Antibody level rises to combat the infection.
5. The infection is dealt with.
6. The antibody level then declines.
It is what?
A

It is short-lived

93
Q

Antibody concentration in the secondary response:

1. After the primary response, antibodies do not do what?

A

After the primary response, antibodies do not stay in the blood

94
Q

Antibody concentration in the secondary response:

1. After the primary response, antibodies do not stay in the blood, so what?

A

After the primary response, antibodies do not stay in the blood, so their level declines

95
Q

Antibody concentration in the secondary response:
1. After the primary response, antibodies do not stay in the blood, so their level declines.
2. If the body is infected by the same infection a second time, antibodies must be made again.
What does the re-infection cause?

A

The re-infection causes a:
1. Much more rapid
2. Stronger
immune response

96
Q

Antibody concentration in the secondary response:
1. After the primary response, antibodies do not stay in the blood, so their level declines.
2. If the body is infected by the same infection a second time, antibodies must be made again.
The re-infection causes a much more rapid and a stronger immune response.
The concentration of antibodies rises when?

A

The concentration of antibodies rises sooner

97
Q

Antibody concentration in the secondary response:
1. After the primary response, antibodies do not stay in the blood, so their level declines.
2. If the body is infected by the same infection a second time, antibodies must be made again.
The re-infection causes a much more rapid and a stronger immune response.
The concentration of antibodies rises sooner and reaches what?

A

The concentration of antibodies:

  1. Rises sooner
  2. Reaches a higher concentration
98
Q

Antibody concentration in the secondary response:
1. After the primary response, antibodies do not stay in the blood, so their level declines.
2. If the body is infected by the same infection a second time, antibodies must be made again.
The re-infection causes a much more rapid and a stronger immune response.
The concentration of antibodies rises sooner and reaches a higher concentration.
This is because there are more what than in the primary response?

A

This is because there are more plasma cells than in the primary response

99
Q

Antibody concentration in the secondary response:
1. After the primary response, antibodies do not stay in the blood, so their level declines.
2. If the body is infected by the same infection a second time, antibodies must be made again.
The re-infection causes a much more rapid and a stronger immune response.
The concentration of antibodies rises sooner and reaches a higher concentration.
This is because there are more plasma cells than in the primary response, so more cells to do what?

A

This is because there are more plasma cells than in the primary response, so more cells to respond to the infection

100
Q

Antibody concentration in the secondary response:
1. After the primary response, antibodies do not stay in the blood, so their level declines.
2. If the body is infected by the same infection a second time, antibodies must be made again.
The re-infection causes a much more rapid and a stronger immune response.
The concentration of antibodies rises sooner and reaches a higher concentration.
This is because there are more plasma cells than in the primary response, so more cells to respond to the infection.
It takes less what to produce the same number of plasma cells?

A

It takes less time to produce the same number of plasma cells

101
Q

Antibody concentration in the secondary response:
1. After the primary response, antibodies do not stay in the blood, so their level declines.
2. If the body is infected by the same infection a second time, antibodies must be made again.
The re-infection causes a much more rapid and a stronger immune response.
The concentration of antibodies rises sooner and reaches a higher concentration.
This is because there are more plasma cells than in the primary response, so more cells to respond to the infection.
It takes less time to produce the same number of plasma cells, so there is a greater what compared to the primary response?

A

It takes less time to produce the same number of plasma cells, so there is a greater antibody concentration compared to the primary response

102
Q

Antibody concentration in the secondary response:
1. After the primary response, antibodies do not stay in the blood, so their level declines.
2. If the body is infected by the same infection a second time, antibodies must be made again.
The re-infection causes a much more rapid and a stronger immune response.
The concentration of antibodies rises sooner and reaches a higher concentration.
This is because there are more plasma cells than in the primary response, so more cells to respond to the infection.
It takes less time to produce the same number of plasma cells, so there is a greater antibody concentration compared to the primary response.
This is due to the presence of what?

A

This is due to the presence of memory cells

103
Q

Antibody concentration in the secondary response:
1. After the primary response, antibodies do not stay in the blood, so their level declines.
2. If the body is infected by the same infection a second time, antibodies must be made again.
The re-infection causes a much more rapid and a stronger immune response.
The concentration of antibodies rises sooner and reaches a higher concentration.
This is because there are more plasma cells than in the primary response, so more cells to respond to the infection.
It takes less time to produce the same number of plasma cells, so there is a greater antibody concentration compared to the primary response.
This is due to the presence of memory cells (made when)?

A

This is due to the presence of memory cells (made during the primary response)

104
Q

Antibody concentration in the secondary response:
1. After the primary response, antibodies do not stay in the blood, so their level declines.
2. If the body is infected by the same infection a second time, antibodies must be made again.
The re-infection causes a much more rapid and a stronger immune response.
The concentration of antibodies rises sooner and reaches a higher concentration.
This is because there are more plasma cells than in the primary response, so more cells to respond to the infection.
It takes less time to produce the same number of plasma cells, so there is a greater antibody concentration compared to the primary response.
This is due to the presence of memory cells (made during the primary response), so there is no need for what?

A

This is due to the presence of memory cells (made during the primary response), so there is no need for:

  1. Antigen presentation
  2. Clonal selection
105
Q

Antibody concentration in the secondary response:
1. After the primary response, antibodies do not stay in the blood, so their level declines.
2. If the body is infected by the same infection a second time, antibodies must be made again.
The re-infection causes a much more rapid and a stronger immune response.
The concentration of antibodies rises sooner and reaches a higher concentration.
This is because there are more plasma cells than in the primary response, so more cells to respond to the infection.
It takes less time to produce the same number of plasma cells, so there is a greater antibody concentration compared to the primary response.
This is due to the presence of memory cells (made during the primary response), so there is no need for antigen presentation and clonal selection.
This is what?

A

This is long-lived

106
Q

Antibody concentration in the secondary response:
1. After the primary response, antibodies do not stay in the blood, so their level declines.
2. If the body is infected by the same infection a second time, antibodies must be made again.
The re-infection causes a much more rapid and a stronger immune response.
The concentration of antibodies rises sooner and reaches a higher concentration.
This is because there are more plasma cells than in the primary response, so more cells to respond to the infection.
It takes less time to produce the same number of plasma cells, so there is a greater antibody concentration compared to the primary response.
This is due to the presence of memory cells (made during the primary response), so there is no need for antigen presentation and clonal selection.
This is long-lived and is the basis of what?

A

This is:

  1. Long-lived
  2. The basis of vaccination

A Level AQA Biology (69 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions