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Module 5 - Communication, Homeostasis and Energy > 5.1.5 Animal responses > Flashcards

5.1.5 Animal responses Flashcards

1
Q

What are the two main divisions of the nervous system?

A

central nervous system
peripheral nervous system

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2
Q

What structures make up the central nervous system (CNS)?

A

the brain & spinal chord
relaye neurones and many synapses

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3
Q

What is the structure and function of the peripheral nervous system?

A

Made up of the nerves that connect the CNS to the rest of the body.

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4
Q

What are the two subdivisions of the peripheral nervous system (PNS)?

A

Somatic nervous system
Autonomic nervous system

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5
Q

What does the somatic nervous system control?

A

Voluntary actions, e.g. running

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6
Q

What does the autonomic nervous system control?

A

Unconscious activities, e.g. heart rate & digestion

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7
Q

What are the two subdivisions of the autonomic nervous system?

A

Sympathetic nervous system
Parasympathetic nervous system

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8
Q

What is a ganglion?

A

A structure containing a number of nerve cell bodies

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9
Q

Describe the Sympathetic nervous system.

A

-‘Fight or flight’ response
-Neurotransmitter is noradrenaline
-Short preganglionic neurones but long post ganglionic neurones
-Increases breathing rate, diameter of airways & blood flow to skeletal muscles
-Dilates pupils & glycogenolysis
-Reduces peristalsis

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10
Q

Describe the Parasympathetic nervous system.

A

-‘Rest and digest’
-Neurotransmitter is acetylcholine
-Long preganglionic neurones but short postganglionic neurones
-Decrease breathing rate, diameter of airways & blood flow to skeletal muscles
-Constricts pupils & glycogenesis
-Increases peristalsis

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11
Q

Explain the role of the cerebrum

A

Controls voluntary actions
Vision, language, thinking & memory

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12
Q

What is the role of the cerebellum?

A

Muscle coordination, movement & balance

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13
Q

What is the role of the Medulla Oblongata?

A

Controls unconscious actions
heart rate and breathing rate

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14
Q

What are the main functions of the Hypothalamus?

A

Thermoregulation
Osmoregulation
Regulates digestive activity
Controlling endocrine functions

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15
Q

What is the role of the Pituitary gland?

A

Produces a range of hormones
Control the activity of other glands

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16
Q

Where is ADH secreted from?

A

Posterior pituitary gland

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17
Q

What is a reflex?

A

A rapid, unconscious response to a stimulus that helps protect the body from harm.

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18
Q

What are two examples of reflex actions?

A

The blinking reflex and the knee-jerk reflex.

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19
Q

When does the blinking reflex occur?

A

The cornea is stimulated and the eyelid closes to prevent anything from entering the eye.

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20
Q

What is the purpose of the knee-jerk reflex?

A

Maintain balance and posture by straightening the leg if the quadriceps muscle suddenly stretches

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21
Q

Describe the pathway of the knee-jerk reflex.

A
  1. Stretch receptors in the quadriceps muscle detect muscle is being stretched
  2. A nerve impulse is passes along a sensory neurone, which then directly communicates with a motor neurone (no relay neurone)
  3. The motor neurone carries the nerve impulse to the quadriceps muscle causing it to contract.
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22
Q

What two systems control the fight or flight response?

A

The endocrine (hormonal) system and the nervous system.

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23
Q

What hormone does the anterior pituitary gland release and what is its function?

A

ACTH
Stimulates the adrenal cortex to release steroid hormones, e.g. cortisol

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24
Q

How does the sympathetic system contribute to ‘fight or flight’?

A

Stimulates the adrenal medulla to release adrenaline

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25
What are the effects of adrenaline and noradrenaline?
-Increased heart rate (pump blood around body faster) -Muscles around bronchioles relax (breathing is deeper) -Increased glycogenolysis (more glucose availble for respiration) -Erector pili muscles contract (make animal look bigger) -Muscle in the arterioles supllying the skin and gut constrict -Muscle in the arterioles supplying lungs and skeletal muscles dilate
26
Where is the cardiovascular control centre located?
Medulla Oblongata
27
What are the two types of receptors involved in controlling heart rate?
-Baroreceptors (pressure receptors) -Chemoreceptors (chemical receptors).
28
Where are baroreceptors and chemoreceptors located?
In the aortic and carotid bodies
29
What do baroreceptors detect?
Changes in blood pressure.
30
What do chemoreceptors detect?
Oxygen & Carbon dioxide concentration pH of the blood
31
How does the cardiovascular control center respond to high/low blood pressure or oxygen levels?
High: activates the parasympathetic NS, secretes acetylcholine & decreases frequency of waves of excitation from SAN Low: activates the Sympathetic NS, secretes noradrenaline & increases frequency of waves of excitation from SAN.
32
Describe the pathway of the response to **high blood pressure**.
1. **Baroreceptors** detect high blood pressure 2. Impulses are sent to the medulla oblongata, which sends impulses along the Vagus nerve. 3. This actvates the parasympathetic NS and secretes acetylcholine, which binds to receptors on the SAN 4. The frequency of the waves of excitations from the SAN is reduced 5. Heart rate slows to return to normal bp
33
Describe the pathway of **low blood pressure**.
1. Baroreceptors detect low blood pressure 2. Impulses are sent to the medulla oblongata, which send impulses along the Accelerator nerve 3. This activate the sympathetic nervous system, causing the secretion of noradrenaline that binds to receptors on the SAN 4. Increases the frequency of waves of excitation from the SAN 5. Heart rate speeds up to increase blood pressure to normal.
34
Describe the pathway of response to **high blood O₂/CO₂** or **high blood pH**
1. Chemoreceptors detect chemical changes in the blood 2. Impulses are sent to the medulla oblongata, which send impulses along the Vagus nerve. 3. This activates the parasympathetic NS & secretes acetylcholine, which binds to receptors on the SAN. 4.Decrease frequency of waves of excitation from SAN 5. Heart rate increases to return chemical levels to normal.
35
What is the purpose of the Student’s t-test?
To determine whether the means of two sets of data are significantly different.
36
What is the null hypothesis in a t-test?
That there is no significant difference between the means of the two groups.
37
When should you reject the null hypothesis?
The t value is greater than the critical value The difference between the means is statistically different
38
What does a probability of 0.05 (5%) mean in a t-test?
There is a less than 5% chance that the difference between the two means is due to chance.
39
What are the three types of muscle in the body?
Skeletal muscle Smooth muscle Cardiac muscle
40
What is the function of skeletal muscle?
It is responsible for physical movement, such as running.
41
What are muscle fibres?
Bundles of long muscle cells
42
What are the cell membrane and cytoplasm in muscle cells called?
Sarcolemma = muscle cell membrane Sarcoplasm = muscle cell cytoplasm
43
What are T-tubules, and what is their function?
Transverse (T) tubules are **folds** of the sarcolemma into the sarcoplasm that help **spread electrical impulses** throughout the muscle fibre.
44
What is the sarcoplasmic reticulum, and what does it do?
Organelles, which stores Ca²⁺ ions for muscle contraction.
45
What are myofibrils, and what is their function?
Long cylinders of proteins Enable the muscle fibre to contract
46
What are sarcomeres?
Short repeating units that make up myofibrils.
47
What are the two types of myofilament in a sarcomere?
Myosin - thick filament Actin - thin filament
48
What is **Myosin**, and what band does it make up?
Thick filament A band
49
What is **Actin**, and what band does it make up?
Thin filament I band
50
What is the Z-line, and where is it found?
The end boundary of each sarcomere where sarcomeres join together.
51
Where is the M-line found?
The middle of the sarcomere
52
What is the H-zone?
The part of the A-band that contains only myosin filaments (without actin overlap).
53
What happens to actin and myosin filaments during muscle contraction?
They slide over each other, shortening the sarcomere, but do not change in length.
54
What can bind to actin using ATP during a muscle contraction?
Myosin head groups, which are globular and hinged
55
What is the region on actin where myosin heads bind?
actin-myosin binding site
56
What blocks the actin-myosin binding site under resting conditions?
Tropomyosin (and troponin)
57
What triggers muscle contraction?
-An action potential arrives at a muscle fibre, causing a wave of depolarisation along the sarcolemma and down T-tubules -This stimulates the sarcoplasmic retitculum to release Ca²⁺ ions, which bind to troponin.
58
What happens when calcium ions bind to troponin?
Troponin changes shape Pulls the tropomyosin out of the actin-myosin binding site, unblocking it and allowing myosin to bind to the actin myofilament
59
What bond forms when myosin heads bind to actin?
Actin-myosin cross bridge
60
What enzyme does the release of Ca²⁺ ions activate and what do they do?
**ATPase** Catalyses the hydrolysis of ATP, which generates energy for the myosin head group to move backwards in a rowing action or **Power stroke**.
61
What is the power stroke?
The movement of the myosin head, pulling the actin filament closer and shortening the sarcomere
62
How is the actin-myosin cross bridge broken?
ATP binds to myosin, detaching it from actin, allowing the cycle to restart.
63
What happens when muscle contraction stops?
The muscle is no longer stimulated, Ca²⁺ ions move back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum by active transport. Troponin reforms original shape, pusing tropomyosin back into the actin-filament binding site Sarcomere lengthens
64
Why do muscles need ATP?
Power stroke -> breaking the actin-myosin cross-bridge Active transport of calcium ions back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
65
What are the three sources of ATP?
1. Aerobic respiration 2. Anaerobic respiration 3. Phosphocreatine
66
Where is most of the ATP generated?
During **Oxidative phosphorylation** in the mitochondria
67
Where is ATP produces in anareobic respiration?
During **glycolysis** in the cytoplasm
68
What is the downside of anaerobic respiration?
Only small amount of ATP produced - 2 per glycolysis reaction Produced** lactic acid **--> leads to muscle fatigue
69
How does phosphocreatine provide ATP?
Remove a phosphate group from phosphocreatine and using it to phosphorylate ADP Creatine formed and is removed from the body via the kidneys
70
Why is phosphocreatine useful for short bursts of energy?
Can generate ATP very quickly, but runs out fast
71
What are two key properties of phosphocreatine metabolism?
Anaerobic - no O₂ needed Alactic - no lactic acid produced
72
What is a neuromuscular junction?
A synapse between a motor neuron and a muscle cell
73
What neurotransmitter is used at NMJs?
Acetylcholine
74
What type of receptors are found on the muscle cell membrane at NMJs?
Nicotinic cholinergic receptors
75
What is the function of acetylcholinesterase in NMJs?
Breaks down acetylcholine to stop muscle contraction
76
How does the structure of the postsynaptic membrane in NMJs differ from a typical synapse?
Folded into clefts, which store the enzyme acteylcholinerase Contains a high number of receptors
77
What are the key features of **skeletal** muscle?
-Striated (striped) appearance -Under voluntary control -Cells are multinulceated -Can fatigue easily
78
What are the key features of **smooth** muscle?
-Found in blood vessels and walls of internal organs -Cells are spindle shaped with no stripes -Involuntary control -Uninucleated -Contracts slowly and does not fatigue
79
What are the key features of **cardiac** (heart) muscle?
-Found in walls of the heart -Contains cross-striations: but not as many as skeletal muscle -Branched fibres connected by intercalated discs (allow electrical signals to pass easily) -Myogenic but rate of contraction is controlled by autonomic NS -Each fibre has a single nucleus -Does **not fatigue**
80
What does electromyography (EMG) measure?
The electrical activity of skeletal muscles to determine muscle fatigue.
81
Why does electrical activity increase with muscle fatigue?
The brain recruits more muscle fibres to maintain force as fatigue sets in.
82
What are the key steps in measuring muscle fatigue using EMG?
1. Attach two electrodes to the muscle (e.g., biceps). 2. Attach a third electrode to a non-moving area (control). 3. Turn off any electrical equipment in room to reduce interference. 4. Connect electrodes to an amplifier and then to a computer. 5. Observe straight lines when the muscle is relaxed. Observe fluctuating lines when the muscle contracts. 6. Lift a weight – as muscle fatigues, amplitude increases as more motor units are recruited.

Module 5 - Communication, Homeostasis and Energy (6 decks)

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