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Module 5 - Communication, Homeostasis and Energy > 5.1.4 Hormonal communication > Flashcards

5.1.4 Hormonal communication Flashcards

1
Q

What is the main function of the endocrine system?

A

To use hormones to send information around the body about changes in the environment and bring about a specific response.

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2
Q

What are hormones and how do they travel around the body?

A

Hormones are chemical messengers secreted by endocrine glands into the bloodstream, which act on specific target cells.

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3
Q

Name three key endocrine glands.

A

Pancreas, Adrenal glands and Pituitary gland

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4
Q

Where is the pituitary gland located and what is its role?

A

Located at the base of the brain
Produces various hormones that regulate the release of other hormones from different glands.

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5
Q

How do hormones act on target cells?

A

They bind to specific receptors on or in target cells, triggering a response.

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6
Q

What are the steps of hormonal action?

A
  1. Hormone produced by endocrine gland
  2. When stimulated, glands releas hormones into the bloodstream
  3. Transported to target cells
  4. Binds to receptors on or inside target cells
  5. Target cell responds
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7
Q

What are the two main types of hormones?

A
  • Non-steroid (peptide) hormones
  • Steroid hormones
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8
Q

Compare non-steroid (peptide) and steroid hormones.

A
  • Peptide hormones are water soluble (hydrophillic) while steroid hormones are lipid soluble (hydrophobic).
  • Peptide hormones cannot diffuse across phospholipid bilayer but steroid hormones can diffuse across it
  • Peptide hormones bind to receptors on the cell-surface membrane of target cells to activate second messengers. However, steroid hormones bind to receptors in the cytoplasm or nucleus, forming a hormone-receptor complex (acts as a transcription factor).
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9
Q

Give one example each of a non-steroid and a steroid hormone.

A

Peptide - Adrenaline or ADH
Steroid - Oestrogen

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10
Q

Compare the endocrine and nervous systems by signal type.

A

Endocrine: Hormones

Nervous: Nerve impulses

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11
Q

Compare transmission methods in the endocrine vs. nervous system.

A

Endocrine: Via the blood

Nervous: Via neurones

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12
Q

Which has a faster response - endocrine system or nervous system?

A

Nervous system

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13
Q

Which system has longer-lasting effects?

A

Endocrine system

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14
Q

Where are the adrenal glands located?

A

Above each kidney

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15
Q

What are the functions of the two main regions of the adrenal glands?

A

Adrenal cortex - The outer region, responsible for producing steroid hormones.

Adrenal medulla - The inner region, resposible for producing catecholamine hormones like Adrenaline in response to stress.

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16
Q

What surrounds the adrenal gland?

A

A capsule

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17
Q

Name the three types of steroid hormones produced by the adrenal cortex.

A

Glucocorticoids
Mineralocorticoids
Androgens

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18
Q

What do Glucocorticoids do?

A

Regulate metabolism by controlling conversion of carbs, proteins and fats to energy
Control blood pressure and stress response
Regulate immune response and suppress inflammation
Examples - Cortisol & Corticosterone

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19
Q

What is the function of Mineralocorticoids?

A

Maintain blood pressure by balancing salt and water in blood and body fluids.
Example - Aldosterone

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20
Q

What is the role of Androgens secreted from the adrenal cortex?

A

Regulate sexual characteristics and cell growth.
Example - Testosterone

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21
Q

How is the release of adrenal cortex hormones regulated?

A

By chemical signals from the hypothalamus and kidneys.

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22
Q

What type of hormones does the Adrenal medulla produce?

A

Catecholamines - mainly adrenaline and noradrenaline.
Hormones that prepare the body for stressful or dangerous situations

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23
Q

When are catecholamines released?

A

‘Fight ot flight’ response or when the sympathetic nervous system is stimulated

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24
Q

What are the effects of adrenaline on the body?

A
  • Increased heart rate and blood pressue ro increase blood flow to muscles and brain
  • Increased glycogenolysis
  • Increased breathing rate
  • Dilates bronchioles
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25
What are the effects of **noradrenaline** on the body?
* Increases heart rate * Dilates pupils * Expands airways * Constricts/narrows blood vessels in non-essential organs (e.g. the gut)
26
What are the differences between an endocrine gland and an exocrine gland?
* The endocrine function is to secrete **hormones** directly into the **bloodstream** but exocrine secrete **enzymes** or other substances into **ducts** that lead to a target site * Endocrine glands are ductless but exocrine glands have ducts * Endocrine's target cell can be distant but exocrine glands are localised
27
What type of tissue makes up most of the pancreas?
Exocrine glandular tissue.
28
What structures make up the exocrine tissue of the pancreas?
Pancreatic acini, which contain acinar cells.
29
What do the **acinar cells** produce?
Digestive enzymes: amylases, proteases, lipases Alkaline pancreatic juice
30
How are the substances secreted from exocrine glands transported and where are they released?
Transported via the pancreatic duct Released into the duodenum (part of the small intestine)
31
What structures allow the pancreas to function as an endocrine gland?
Islets of Langerhans
32
What are the two main cell types in the islets of Langerhans and what do they secrete?
* Beta (β) cells → secrete insulin * Alpha (α) cells → secrete glucagon
33
Why is regulating blood glucose important?
Glucose is essential for cellular **respiration**. Extreme blood glucose levels can lead to **osmotic imbalances** in cells, potentially causing cell death.
34
What type of feedback mechanism controls insulin and glucagon secretion?
Negative feedback
35
How does **insulin** lower blood glucose? (4 key effects)
* **Inhibition of α cells** (↓ glucagon) * Increased glucose uptake - Insulin **increases permeability** of muscle and fat cells to glucose. * Increased respiration - Increased glucose breakdown for energy production. * **Glycogenesis** - Glucose is converted into glycogen for storage, primarily in the liver.
36
How does **glucagon** raise blood glucose? (4 key effects)
* **Inhibition of β cells** - Lowers insulin secretion. * Reduced respiration - Decreases glucose breakdown. * **Glycogenolysis** - Glycogen is converted back into glucose in liver and muscle cells. * **Gluconeogenesis** - Glucose is produced from amino acids and fats in the liver.
37
What role does **adrenaline** play in glucose regulation?
Works with glucagon to increase blood glucose by stimulating **glycogenolysis** and **gluconeogenesis**.
38
What triggers insulin secretion from β cells?
High blood glucose levels, e.g after a meal
39
Outline the steps of insulin secretion from β cells.
1. Glucose **enters** β cells via **transporter proteins**. 2. **Increased respiration** produces **more ATP** in mitochondria. 3. ATP prompts the **closure of potassium ion channels**. 4. This causes an increase in potassium ion concentration **inside** the cell. 5. The rise in potassium levels leads to **depolarisation**, **opening calcium ion channels**. 6. The calcium ion influx **stimulates insulin** release through **exocytosis**.
40
What is the process of insulin secretion from β cells called?
**Stimulus-secretion coupling**
41
What is diabetes mellitus?
A condition where blood glucose levels are not properly regulated.
42
What indicates possible diabetes in a urine test?
The presence of **glucose in urine**. Indicating that the kineys are unable to absorbe all glucose from the filtrate into the blood - blood glucose levels have exceeded a healthy threshold.
43
What tool is commonly used by diabetics to monitor blood glucose?
A **biosensor** using a small blood sample.
44
What are some features of **type 1** diabetes?
Often caused by an **autoimmune disease** that destroys insulin-producing β cells in the pancreas. It leads to **no insulin production** and high blood glucose levels Typically develops in childhood or early adulthood.
45
What are some features **type 2** diabetes?
Occurs when β cells do not produce **enough insulin** or the body's cells **resist insluin**. Resulting in higher than normal blood glucose levels Commonly develops later in life, associated with diabtes.
46
What are common risk factors for type 2 diabetes?
Obesity, lack of exercise, poor diet and older age.
47
How is type 1 diabetes treated?
* Regular **insulin injections**. * Use of an **insulin pump** providing continuous insulin administration. * Pancreas **transplants** of healthy islet cells * Careful **blood glucose monitoring** and a **diet** balanced with insulin dosage. * **Exercise** to help regulate blood glucose and insulin requirements.
48
What is the first-line treatment for **type 2** diabetes?
Lifestyle change - e.g. diet, exercise and weight loss
49
What medications may be used for type 2 diabetes?
* Drugs that increase **insulin sensitivity** * Drugs that stimulate insulin production * In some cases, insulin therapy
50
How might stem cells be used to treat diabetes?
Growing stem cells **into β cells**. **Implanting** these β cells into the pancreas of individuals with **type 1 diabetes**. This allows them to produce their own insulin.
51
How are **genetically modified** bacteria used in diabetes treatment?
Engineered to produce **human insulin** for medical use
52
What are the **benefits** of using GM bacteria to produce insulin?
* Reduced production costs * Mass production * More effective * Lower risk of allergic reactions * Avoids ethical/religious issues of animal-derived insulin
53
Which part of the brain initiates the fight or flight response?
Hypothalamus
54
What nervous system is activated by the hypothalamus during 'fight ot flight'?
Sympathetic nervous system
55
What does the sympathetic nervous system stimulate the adrenal medulla to secrete?
Adrenaline and noradrenaline
56
What does the hypothalamus stimulate to activate the endocrine response?
The **pituitary gland** to secrete the hormone **ACTH**
57
What does ACTH do?
It travels in the blood to the **adrenal cortex**, stimulating it to release several other hormones to help the body deal with the threat.
58
Describe six **physiological responses** in the fight or flight response.
* **Increased heart rate** - to circulate more oxygenated blood * **Dilated pupils** - to improve vision * **Constriction of arterioles in skin** - to divert more blood to major muscles, brain & heart * **Glycogenolysis** - to increase cellular respiration * **Relaxation of airway muscles** - to widen airways & allow more oxygen into lungs * **Reduced peristalsis** - to prioritise emergency bodily functions
59
What is the first messenger in the second messanger model?
The hormone, typically a non-steroid hormone.
60
What enzyme does adrenaline activate via a G protein?
Adenylyl cyclase.
61
Outline the cell signalling pathway for adrenaline.
1. Adrenaline binds to complementary **receptor** on the cell-surface membrane of a liver cell. 2. The binding of adrenaline causes the receptor protein to **change shape**, activating a **G protein**. 3. This activates the enzyme **adenylyl cyclase**. 4. The activated adenyl cyclase converts **ATP into cAMP**. 5. cAMP acts as a **second messenger**, binding to and **activating many protein kinases** via phosphorylation, amplifying the signal from adrenaline. 6. Protein kinases activate enzymes that catalyse the breakdown of glycogen into glucose.
62
What is the second messenger used in adrenaline signalling?
cyclic AMP (cAMP)
63
What does cAMP do in the liver cell?
It activates protein kinases, triggering glycogenolysis
64
How does the cascade effect amplify the response?
Each hormone molecule leads to the production of **many cAMP molecules**, which activate many enzymes, amplifying the effect.

Module 5 - Communication, Homeostasis and Energy (5 decks)

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