(50) issues anf efects of eng as a world lang

Question 1

effects of the spread of eng & lang contact
hint: 6 effects

Answer 1

1. borrowing that enriches the eng lang
   - croissant, deja ve, ciabatta
2. lang maintenance (Fishmen, 1964)
   
   • continuing to use a lang in the face of competition from a more regionally and socially powerful lang
   • eg welsh, hokkien, cantonese
3. lang shift (Fishmen, 1964)
   
   • replacement of one lang by another as the primary means of communication and socialisation in a community
   • eg: in sg more & more ethnic chi, malay, & indians speak SgE at home
4. lang loss
   
   • gradual process that can occur at 2 levels: personal & familial OR entire lang lost (no one on earth speaks it) → eg latin
   • dom lang takes over (replaces) communications at work, socially, etc
   • can lead to lang death, but not always
5. lang death
   
   • when no one uses the lang
   • eg: Cornish in England
6. lang revival/ revitalisation
   
   • reversing lang shift, an attempt to halt/ reverse the decline of a lang OR to revive an extinct one
   • by those involved in linguistics, coltural grps, govt
   • BUT likely wont become mainstream again (eg latin)

Question 2

issues due to the spread of english in sh
hint: 7 issues

Answer 2

1. eng as a killer language (Jenkins, 2015)
   
   • lang loss/ shift/ death can lead to cultural loss
2. eng as a lingua franca + new varieties → mutual unintelligibility
   
   • allows ease of communications as eng is an inter- & intra-national LF
   • BUT mutual unintelligibility can occur btwn speakers of new varieties & ppl who dont speak it
   • many ppl are unable to assimilate in sg bc of it
3. linguistic discrimination
   
   • unfair treatment of an indiv solely based on their use of lang
   • eg AAVE
4. linguistic ownership (Widdowson, 1993)
   
   • exerting control over who speaks the lang, where its spoken, and whether it’s written → leads to lang exclusivity
5. enrichment/ dilution of standards
   
   • esp bc of the internet → enriches speakers repertoire btwn multilingual & multicultural online envs & communities
6. homogenisation of culture & linguistic diversity
   
   • decline of indigenous lang
   • BUT is mitigated when eng lang undergoes nativisation & indigenisation
   • BC native langs have lower prestige, and are stigmatised & discriminated against → eng is the lang of power & prestige → culture loss
   • eg: Msia refuses to acknowledge eng as a medium of lang to teach in sch
7. identity
   
   • nativised varieties seen as representation of local identity in the face of the hegemonic use & spread of eng
   • eg Maori