5 - The Second Pillar

Question 1

Which models are used to explain European development policy?

Answer 1

• According to the liberal, intergovernmental model, the European decision-making process is shaped by member states
• According to neo-functionalism, the spill-over effect from policy sectors and decisions plays a major role
• According to multi-level governance, national authorities both influence and are influenced by supranational institutions and non-state actors

Question 2

What is the New Consensus on Development?

Answer 2

It is an agreement reached between the European Council, the European Parliament, the European Commission and the European External Action Service

Question 3

What are the 3 main points of the New Consensus on Development?

Answer 3

1. It recognises the strong interlinkages between development, peace and security, migration, the environment and climate change
2. It pleads for a more comprehensive approach to the means of implementation, combining traditional development aid with other resources
3. It leverages private sector investments and mobilises additional domestic resources for development (whole of society approach)

Question 4

What is the Yaoundé Convention?

Answer 4

It was an agreement signed in 1963 between the 6 members of the EEC and 18 associated African states and Madagascar. Trade liberalisation was accelerated, and more aid was made available, partly in the form of loans. The second Yaoundé Convention (169-1975) increased the aid flow.

Question 5

What is the Lomé Convention?

Answer 5

The Lome Convention was signed in 1975 between the EEC and 46 ACP countries. It granted duty-free access and a reserved market share for adhering countries’ exports and development aid. The Second Lomé Convention (1980-1985) focused more on the food issue.

Question 6

What was the Third Lomé Convention about?

Answer 6

• The Third Lomé Convention (1985-1990) paid even more attention to the food situation and agricultural problems in the ACP countries,
• But also to employment, the protection of private investments, aid effectiveness and the burden of debt.

Question 7

What was the Fourth Lomé Convention about?

Answer 7

• The IV Lomè Convention (1990-2000) incorporated human rights as a fundamental element of the treaty.
• The environment, gender, the private sector and decentralised development got particular attention.

Question 8

What did the revisioning process of the IV Lomé Convention establish?

Answer 8

Following the fall of the Berlin Wall, the revision process established was the first to provide a suspension of aid flows in case of violation of human rights, democratic principles and the rule of law.

Question 9

What are the weaknesses of the Lomé Conventions?

Answer 9

• The preferential trade regime enjoyed by APC countries was inconsistent with the principle of non-discrimination.
• The share of ACP countries in the EU market halved from 1976 to 1998 (from 6.7 to 3 per cent).
• ACP countries failed to diversify their production and trade: by the late 1990s, 60% of total exports from the ACP countries still consisted of just 10 products

Question 10

What is the Cotonou Agreement?

Answer 10

• It was an agreement signed by the EU and the ACP countries in 2000 for a period of 20 years.
• Parties could discuss any subjects of common interest
• The infringement of human rights, principles of democracy and rule of law could lead aid to being suspended.
• Economic Partnership Agreements (EPAs) were proposed.

Question 11

What were EPAs proposed under the Cotonou agreement?

Answer 11

• EPAs were intended to create a free-trade area between the EU and ACP countries
• Negotiations were to be conducted at the regional level: 6 groups were created
• EPAs were built on top of 5 principles

Question 12

What are the 5 foundational principles of EPAs?

Answer 12

EPAs:
- Are defined as development instruments
- Serve to promote regional integration
- Must safeguard the acquis (i.e. what had been agreed so far)

Question 13

Why are EPAs criticised?

Answer 13

Critics argue that:
- the neoliberal development approaches paralyses the states’ attempts for more autonomous development strategies
- the EU gained the most because of asymmetrical political bargaining
- the regional entities were artificially forced, bringing together differently “developed” countries and fostering competition among neighbours

Question 14

What is the Comprehensive Strategy for Africa?

Answer 14

It is a strategy for cooperation between the EU and African countries developed by the EU Commission. It focuses on 5 key areas:
1. green transition and energy access
2. digital transformation
3. sustainable growth and jobs
4. peace and governance
5. migration and mobility

Question 15

What is the reasoning behind the Comprehensive Strategy for Africa?

Answer 15

1. Reduce migration
2. Avoiding Africa became a Chinese colony

Question 16

What are today the instruments of the EU-Africa cooperation?

Answer 16

1. Europe’s New Neighbourhood, Development and International Cooperation Instrument spends 60% of its funds in cooperation with African countries
2. The EU External Investments Plan allocated more than 4.5 billion to better the investment climate in Africa
3. The African Continental Free Trade Area was signed by the EU and 54 of 55 AU countries

Question 17

What are other Western responses to Chinese projects in Africa?

Answer 17

Trump’s Prosper Africa initiative and the ‘mutual prosperity policy’ of the Johnson administration in the UK are a move to counter initiatives such as the Africa Growing Together Fund, a facility that China launched in 2014 with the African Development Bank.

Question 18

What are the critics of the new EU-Africa cooperation plan?

Answer 18

1. It is a weapon to ensure that African countries contain migrants within their borders
2. The current orientation of trade towards Asia questions whether African countries might gain from the agreement
3. Due to the power imbalance, many consider the cooperation plan just as an EU initiative with tacit support from the AU.