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Year 1 Animal Physiology > 5. Respiratory Physiology > Flashcards

5. Respiratory Physiology Flashcards

Structure of the Respiratory System Mechanisms for Inspiration and Expiration Gas Exchange Gas Transport in Blood Respiratory Pathology

1
Q

What is Cellular Respiration?

A

Metabolic processes use O2 to produce CO2, they derive energy from nutrient molecules

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2
Q

What does the Respiratory Quotient (RQ) mean?

A

Ratio of CO2 produced to O2 consumed. Vaires depending on foodstuff consumed.

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3
Q

What is External Respiration?

A

Exchange of O2 and CO2 between environment and organism.

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4
Q

Name the 4 steps of External Respiration.

A

Ventilation, O2 and CO2 exchange between air in alveoli an blood in capillaries, Transport of O2 and CO2 in blood to tissues, and excahnge between tissues and blood

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5
Q

What is an airway?

A

Pathway of air into lungs

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6
Q

Describe the structure of Trachea and Bronchi

A

Rigid tubes, rings of cartilage to avoid collapsing.

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7
Q

Describe the structure of Bronchioles

A

No cartilage, walls contain smooth muscle (autonomic NS). Sensitive to certain hormones and chemicals

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8
Q

Describe the structure of Alveoli

A

Thin Walled inflatable sacs. The site of Gas Exchange.

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9
Q

What is the difference between Type 1 and Type 2 alveolar cells.

A

Type 1 is one cell thick, short diffusion distance. Type 2 secretes surfactant

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10
Q

What is the role of Alveolar macrophages and the Pores of Kohn?

A

Macrophages guard lumen and pores allow airflow between neighbouring alveoli (collateral ventilation)

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11
Q

Name 3 features of alveoli that make it effective for its function.

A

Large surface area, thin walls (one cell thick) and surrounded by capillary vessels. (increase diffusion)

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12
Q

What is the diaphragm made from?

A

Smooth muscle

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13
Q

What is the role of the Diaphragm?

A

Separates thoracic cavity from abdominal cavity.

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14
Q

What is the pleural sac?

A

Double-walled, closed sac separating each lung from theoracic wall.

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15
Q

What is the pleural cavity.

A

Area which surrounds the lung. It allows room for the lungs to expand and contract, and is designed to make it easy for the lungs to inflate after they have deflated

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16
Q

What is the function of intrapleural fluid?

A

Secreted by surfaces of the pleura and it protects the lung from damage.

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17
Q

Name the 4 primary functions of respiratory system.

A

Exchange of gases between air and blood, homeostatic regulation of body pH, defence against inhaled pathogens and irritating substances (cilia, Mucus escalator and macrophages), and vocalisation.

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18
Q

Name the three pressures to consider in the respiratory system.

A

Atmospheric, Intra-alveolar and intrapleural pressure.

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19
Q

If alveolar pressure is greater than atmospheric pressure, where does the air go?

A

Flows out of lungs to the environment.

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20
Q

What is Boyle’s Law?

A

At any constant temperature, pressure exerted by a gas vaires inversely with the volume of a gas. Change in lung size changes pressure.

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21
Q

What is the transpulmonary pressure?

A

Pressure inside the lungs minus the pressure in the intrapleural fluid (outside lungs)

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22
Q

Name the nerves that the diaphragm and intercostal muscles are innervated by.

A

Diaphragm: Phrenic Nerve

Intercostal muscles: Intercostal nerve.

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23
Q

What happens to the diaphragm during inspiration which allows air to enter lungs?

A

Diaphragm contracts and flattens to lower the volume of the intrapleural pressure. The lungs expand into this area of lower pressure which increases the volume of the lungs and lowers intra-alveolar pressure below the atmospheric pressure so air move in.

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24
Q

Other than the diaphragm, what other structures further enlarge the thoracic cavity which further increases the volume of the lungs.

A

Contraction of accessory inspiratory muscles.

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25
Q

What decreases the size of the chest cavity during expiration?

A

Relaxation of inspiratory muscles, diaphragm and muscles of the chest wall. Elastic recoil of the alveoli.

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26
Q

What happens to the intrapleural pressure during expiration?

A

Increases

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27
Q

What happens during forced expiration?

A

Internal intercostal muscles contract to further reduce the volume of the lungs to force more air out of the lungs.

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28
Q

What is compliance?

A

Effort needed to stretch lungs. The change in volume due to a given force or pressure. -V/P

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29
Q

What causes recoil?

A

Highly elastic connective tissue in lungs. Alveolar surface tension.

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30
Q

What is the function of the surfactant?

A

Produced by type 2 alveolar cells. Contain phospholipid molecules which lowers surface tension of liquid lining alveoli so pressure needed to hold alveoli open is reduced.

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31
Q

What is the law of LaPlace?

A

P = 2T/R

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32
Q

What is the main determinant of airway resistance?

A

Diameter of conducting airway.

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33
Q

What can mucus accumulation cause?

A

Increased resistance

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34
Q

What affect does the collapsible tubes of the Bronchioles have on the airway resistance?

A

Increases airway resistance.

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35
Q

What other factors increase airway resistance?

A

Large lengths of system and high viscosity of substance flowing.

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36
Q

Define tidal volume

A

Volume of air per breath (500ml)

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37
Q

Define Inspiratory Reserve

A

Extra Volume that can be max inspired. (3000ml)

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38
Q

How do you work out Inspiratory capacity?

A

Tidal Volume + Inspiratory Reserve (3500ml)

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39
Q

Define Expiratory Reserve

A

Extra Volume that can be expired by maximal contraction beyond normal. (1000ml)

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40
Q

Define Residual Volume.

A

Minimal volume remaining in lungs after maximal expiration. (1200ml)

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41
Q

Define Functional Residual Capacity.

A

Volume of air in lungs at end of normal expiration. (Expiratory Reserve + Residual Volume) (2200ml)

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42
Q

Define Vital Capacity

A

Maximum volume of air moved in a single breath after maximum inspiration. (Inspiratory reserve + Tidal Volume + Expiratory Reserve) (4500ml)

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43
Q

Define Total Lung Capacity.

A

Maximum volume that the lungs can hold. (Vital Capacity + Residual Volume) (5700ml)

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44
Q

Define Forced Expiratory volume in 1 sec

A

Volume of air can be expired during the first second of expiration in a vital capacity determination.

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45
Q

How do you work out Minute Ventilation?

A

Tidal Volume x Respiratory Rate.

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46
Q

What is dead space?

A

Air that fills the conducting respiratory passageway and never contributes to gas exchange

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47
Q

What is Alveolar dead space?

A

Inspired fresh air not used for gas exchange with the blood even though it reaches alveoli.

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48
Q

How do you work out alveolar ventilation?

A

(Tidal Volume - Dead Space) x Respiratory Rate.

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49
Q

Is the concentration of O2 and CO2 in arterial blood relatively constant?

A

Yes,

50
Q

How does O2 and CO2 move during gas exchange?

A

Simple Diffusion

51
Q

How would you work out the partial pressure exerted by each gas in a mixture?

A

Total Pressure x Fractional Composition of Gas in Mixture.

52
Q

What affects diffusion gradients?

A

Size of concnetration gradient, surface area and permeability

53
Q

What is Daltons Law?

A

It shows that all the individual pressures add together to give the total pressure.

54
Q

What percentage of the total composition is oxygen in the atmosphere?

A

21%

55
Q

Does O2 move in or out of the body?

A

In

56
Q

Is the concentration of CO2 greater in the alveoli or blood?

A

In blood.

57
Q

Describe the concentrations of O2 and CO2 in the blood leaving tissue Cells

A

Low O2 and high CO2

58
Q

What gas makes up the majority (79%) of atmospheric air?

A

Nitrogen Gas

59
Q

Is CO2 more or less soluble in blood compared to O2?

A

More

60
Q

The amount of gas that dissolves in a liquid depends on what two factors?

A

Solubility of the gas in the liquid and the partial pressure of the gas.

61
Q

Which gas exchanged has a partial pressure of 0.23mmHg in Air and 40mmHg in Alveoli?

A

CO2

62
Q

Name the 3 factors that determines alveolar partial pressure.

A

PO2 and PCO2 Inspired Air, Minute Ventilation, and Rate of respiring tissue to consume O2 and produce CO2

63
Q

Describe the partial pressures of O2 and CO2 when alveolar evnt exceeds demands of tissue.

A

Higher PO2 and Lower PCO2

64
Q

What does the ventilation perfusion (VA/Q) relationship show?

A

Ratio of alveolar ventilation to pulmonary blood flow.

65
Q

Is there a higher VA/Q at the base or apex of the lung?

A

Apex

66
Q

Does blood flow or ventilation decrease 3x faster?

A

Blood Slow

67
Q

VA/Q is highest when?

A

Max Ventilation and no perfusion.

68
Q

What is the VA/Q when there is an airway obstruction?

A

Zero, Blood gas content remains unchanged during passage through capillary.

69
Q

What is the Normal VA/Q?

A

0.8

70
Q

What causes infinite VA/Q?

A

Vascular Obstruction: Alveolar gas remains at atmospheric levels.

71
Q

What molecule carries oxygen in blood?

A

Haemoglobin

72
Q

How many O2 can Haemoglobin carry at once?

A

4 due to its 4 haem groups.

73
Q

Name the 2 methods of transport for O2 in blood.

A

Bound to haemoglobin (98.5%) and Dissolved (1.5%)

74
Q

Name the 3 methods of transport for CO2 in blood

A

Bound to Haemoglobin (30%), Dissolved (10%) and as bicarbonate (60%)

75
Q

In what cells are haemoglobin found?

A

Erythrocytes (red blood cells)

76
Q

The percentage saturation is high when what?

A

Partial Pressure is high.

77
Q

Where is the % saturation high?

A

Lungs

78
Q

What happens at low % saturations due to low partial pressure of oxygen?

A

Dissociation of Oxygen into tissues.

79
Q

What does the steep part of a oxygen dissociation curve represent?

A

Represents the ease of the 2nd and 3rd O2 molecules in attaching to haemoglobin. The shallow parts represent the difficulty of O2 binding.

80
Q

What sort of curve is the oxygen dissociation curve?

A

Sigmoidal.

81
Q

What does the binding of the 1st O2 to haemoglobin cause?

A

Induces conformational change to make it easier for the next O2 to bind, increasing affinity.

82
Q

Does O2 associate or dissociate at high O2 affinity of haemoglobin?

A

Associate

83
Q

Why is it hard for the last O2 molecule to bind to a haemoglobin?

A

PO2 above 60 mmHg results in there being few binding sites avaliable left.

84
Q

How saturated is haemoglobin at the systemic veins and respiring tissue?

A

75%

85
Q

What is the benefit of there being still loads of O2 molecules in haemoglobin when it reaches respiring tissue.

A

Huge capacity to unload more O2 if tissue metabolism increases (e.g. during exercise).

86
Q

Does increased affinity for oxygen cause a leftward or a rightward shift of the oxygen dissociation curve?

A

Leftward shift - Lower PO2 required to achieve a given O2 saturation - loading more efficient.

87
Q

Does increased temperature cause a leftward or a rightward shift of the oxygen dissociation curve?

A

Rightward Shift - Higher PO2 required to achieve a given O2 saturation - unloading more efficient.

88
Q

Does increased acidity decrease or increase the affinity of haemoglobin for O2?

A

Decrease - Respiring tissue produce H+ to facilitate unloading.

89
Q

What effect does 2,3-DPG have on the dissociation curve?

A

Added DPG (produced during glycolysis) causes more unloading due to lower affinity. (right shift)

90
Q

Describe the structure of Myoglobin.

A

O2 binds to myoglobin’s single haem group. Found in skeletal muscle. Liberates O2 when PO2 down to 10mmHg. At low PO2, it is 50% saturated.

91
Q

What is the difference between adult and foetal haemoglobin?

A

Foetal Hb has a greater affinity for O2 than adult and has a slightly different structure.

92
Q

What buffers H+ ions produced by the formation of bicarbonate ions from CO2

A

Haemoglobin.

93
Q

What is exchanged with HCO3- to allow it to enter the plasma?

A

Cl-

94
Q

What are the two products made from the reverse of the carbonic acid reaction?

A

Water and CO2

95
Q

What catalyses the formation of carbonic acid from CO2 and H20?

A

Carbonic Anhydrase

96
Q

The removal of oxygen from haemoglobin at tissue cells increases what?

A

The ability of Haemoglobin to bind with CO2

97
Q

Difference between Haldane and Bohr Effect

A

Haldane: Promote loading CO2
Bohr: Promote unloading O2

98
Q

What effect does hypoventilation have on PCO2 and pH

A

Increases PCO2 and Lowers pH due to increased bicarbonate and H+

99
Q

What does the kidney do during respiratory acidosis?

A

Conserves more HCO3- to act as a buffer

100
Q

What does the kidney do during respiratory alkalosis?

A

Excretes HCO3- to reduce concentration of buffer

101
Q

What is hypoxia?

A

Lack of O2 availability in tissues

102
Q

What is Hypoxemia?

A

Relative deficiency of O2 in blood.

103
Q

What is Dysoxia?

A

Lack of O2 utiilisation by tissues.

104
Q

What is chronic bronchitis?

A

Inflammation in lungs causes large amounts of mucus production

105
Q

What are the 2 effects of increased mucus?

A

Blockage of bronchioles and creates a breeding ground fro bacteria

106
Q

What is emphysema?

A

Persistant coughing causes stiff tissues and structural damage. Leads to less functional alveoli available

107
Q

What do central chemoreceptors detect?

A

H+ ions

108
Q

What do peripheral chemoreceptors detect?

A

O2, CO2 and H+ ions

109
Q

Which intercostal muscles are involved in inspiration?

A

External Intercostal Muscles

110
Q

What do pulmonary receptors detect?

A

Stretch

111
Q

What controls inspiration and expiration?

A

Respiratory neurons in medulla.

112
Q

What modulates ventilation?

A

Neutrons in pons and chemical factors

113
Q

What are the 2 cell groups of medulla oblongata?

A

Dorsal respiratory group and ventral respiratory group.

114
Q

What is the role of the dorsal respiratory group?

A

Inspiration neurons control external intercostal muscles and diaphragm

115
Q

What is the role of the ventral respiratory group?

A

Neurons control muscles for active expiration and for greater-than-normal inspiration.

116
Q

What alters dorsal and ventral respiratory groups activity?

A

Inputs via vagus nerve plus higher brain centres.

117
Q

Does the activity of inspiratory neurons follow a negative or positive feedback mechanism?

A

Positive feedback mechanism

118
Q

Does activation of chemoreceptors lead to increased or decreased ventilation?

A

Increased ventilation

119
Q

Can H+ cross blood brain barriers?

A

No

120
Q

What effect does hypoventilation have on breathing rate and depth?

A

Increases them due to high PCO2 stimulating chemoreceptors.

Year 1 Animal Physiology (9 decks)

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