4B4 Animal Reproduction and Behavior Flashcards
Understand meiosis, fertilization, and zygote development. Describe behaviors that influence survival in ecosystems.
1
Q
What are the two forms of reproduction?
A
- Asexual reproduction
- Sexual reproduction
2
Q
What is the difference between asexual and sexual reproduction?
A
- Asexual reproduction produces an offspring that will be the exact genetic replica of its parent.
- Sexual reproduction produces an offspring that is a genetic mixture of the two parents.
3
Q
What is the purpose of gametes in sexual reproduction?
A
For fertilization, where two haploid gametes fuse to create a zygote with the full number of chromosomes in humans.
4
Q
What is the gamete formation process?
A
Through meiosis in multicellular organisms.
5
Q
What is the result of meiosis?
A
Four daughter cells that are haploid and genetically unique.
6
Q
What is the process for sperm formation called?
A
Spermatogenesis
A form of meiosis that occurs in the testes.
7
Q
What is the process for egg formation called?
A
Oogenesis
8
Q
What are the specific steps in oogenesis?
A
- Mitosis of oogonia
- Meiosis I
- Oocyte maturation
9
Q
What is the main difference between sperm and eggs in terms of chromosomes inheritance?
A
- Sperm cells can inherit either an X or Y chromosome.
- Eggs can only inherit an X chromosome.
10
Q
How many viable eggs are produced from each turn through meiosis in oogenesis?
A
One
11
Q
How is oogenesis different from spermatogenesis?
A
- The egg is developed to have a rich cytoplasm filled with organelles and macromolecules.
- Sperm is developed for motility.
12
Q
What is the protective membrane outside the plasma membrane of mammalian eggs called?
A
Zona pellucida
13
Q
What are the different types of sexual reproduction based on the types of gametes involved?
A
- Isogamy
- Anisogamy
- Oogamy
14
Q
What is the main difference between isogamy and anisogamy?
A
- Isogamy involves two structurally similar gametes fusing.
- Anisogamy involves two dissimilar gametes fusing.
15
Q
What is the type of sexual reproduction where an immobile egg is fused to a smaller sperm cell?
A
Oogamy
16
Q
What are the germ cell precursors for sperm?
A
Spermatogonia
17
Q
How long does it take for spermatogonia to develop into spermatozoa?
A
64 days
18
Q
What type of cells are the spermatids?
A
Immature sperm that result from the second meiotic division of the primary spermatocytes.
Primary spermatocytes split into secondary spermatocytes leading to the production of spermatids.
19
Q
What are mature sperm cells called?
A
Spermatozoa
20
Q
How many spermatozoa are produced each day in the testes?
A
200-300 Million per day
21
Q
What is the main function of the seminiferous tubules?
A
To produce sperm.
There are approximately 700 feet of seminiferous tubules in the adult testicle.
22
Q
What are the three main parts of a mature spermatozoon?
A
- Flagellum
- Nucleus
- Acrosome
The acrosome contains an enzyme that is used to penetrate an egg.
23
Q
What is fertilization?
A
The joining of the genetic material of two different sex cells, called gametes, resulting in reproduction.
24
Q
What are the two ways fertilization can occur in sexual reproduction?
A
- External fertilization
- Internal fertilization
25
What is **external fertilization**?
Fertilization that takes place **outside of the body**, generally occurring in water or damp environments.
## Footnote
Typically used by fish, crustaceans, mollusks and squid.
26
What is **internal fertilization**?
When the egg and sperm meet **inside of the body**.
27
Where does fertilization occur in **plants**?
**Inside the ovary**, located at the bottom of the pistil.
28
What is the fusion of a female egg and male sperm within the fallopian tube of a human called?
Human fertilization
29
What factors can affect **human fertilization**?
* Female ovulation.
* Timing of intercourse.
* Correct path of sperm to the egg.
30
At what point in the menstrual cycle does **ovulation** typically occur?
Roughly at the halfway point of the menstrual cycle.
## Footnote
Ovulation involves the release of an egg from the ovary.
31
How many sperm are released in a single ejaculation?
Up to 150 million.
## Footnote
Approximately 15% of all sperm are properly structured for travel to the fallopian tubes.
32
What is the final result of the fusion of sperm and egg in human fertilization?
A zygote.
33
How does a **zygote** become an **embryo**?
Shortly after fertilization, the fertilized egg divides into a ball of many cells called a blastocyst and implants into the uterus lining.
34
Why is studying early embryonic development **more difficult** in mammals than in other animals?
Mammals have limiting factors such as:
* fewer eggs
* internal fertilization
* slow division
* small size
* ethical concerns
35
What are the key stages of **pre-embryonic development** in human beings?
* Fertilization
* Cleavage
* Blastulation
* Implantation
36
What is the significance of **fertilization** in early embryonic development?
It is the initial stage where haploid ovum and sperm cells meet, fuse to form a diploid zygote, and create a complete cell with a full set of chromosomes.
37
What happens during the **cleavage stage** of embryonic development?
The zygote undergoes a series of mitotic cellular divisions, without a growth phase in between, to form a solid cluster of cells called a **morula**.
38
What is the process of **blastulation**?
The series of cleavages of the morula that leads to the formation of the blastula (in non-mammals) or blastocyst (in mammals).
39
What is the structure of the **blastocyst** in mammals?
Comprised of two layers of cells:
* trophoblast cells in the outer layer and
* the inner cell mass (ICM) in the inner layer.
40
What is the role of **trophoblast cells** in the blastocyst?
To fuse the **blastocyst to the endometrium** during implantation and help form the placenta.
41
What happens during the **implantation** stage of embryonic development?
The blastocyst gravitates towards the endometrium, hatches from the zona pellucida, and implants itself with help from trophoblast enzymes.
42
What is **ectopic pregnancy**?
Implantation of the blastocyst in the **fallopian tubes**, resulting in a nonviable pregnancy.
43
What is **placenta previa**?
Implantation of the blastocyst proximal to the cervix, causing the **placenta to block the cervical opening** into the vagina.
44
What is **preimplantation genetic diagnosis** (PGD)?
The selection and screening of fertilized eggs during IVF to eliminate those with undesirable genetic traits.
45
What is the principle of **continuity** in growth and development?
Growth and development are continuous and occur throughout the lifetime.
46
What is the principle of **integration** in growth and development?
Learning happens in parts and is then integrated together as a whole.
47
What is the principle of **lack of uniformity** in growth and development?
Developmental rates and growth of the body and mind occur at different rates.
48
What is the principle of **interrelation** in growth and development?
Development in one area can impact the development of another area.
49
What is the **cephalocaudal** principle?
Describes the directional development of functional motor skills and physical growth from head to toes.
## Footnote
Also known as the 'Head-to-Toe' development principle.
The largeness of an infant's head is one of the best examples of the cephalocaudal development. In cephalocaudal development, growth starts at the head and moves down. As the infant grows, the rest of its body catches up with the larger head, which grew first.
50
What is the **orthogenetic** principle?
It states that a human being matures as they develop biologically.
51
What is the concept of **proximodistal development**?
Growth starts from the torso, or the body's center, and moves outwards, to the arms and the legs.
52
What is the **difference** between cephalocaudal and proximodistal development?
* In **cephalocaudal** growth, growth starts from the head and moves down to the feet.
* In **proximodistal** growth, growth starts from the torso, or the body's center, and moves outwards, to the arms and the legs.
53
What is metamorphosis?
The changing of one organism into another form typically soon after birth.
## Footnote
Examples:
* Caterpillar transforming to a butterfly.
* Tadpole transforming into a frog.
54
What is the traditional stages of metamorphosis in insects?
1. Egg
2. Larva
3. Pupa
4. Adult
55
What are the four types of metamorphosis and their respective stages?
* Ametabolous: Egg-nymph/smaller adult-adult
* Hemimetabolous: Egg-nymph-adult
* Holometabolous: Egg-larva-pupa-adult
* Hypermetamorphosis: Egg-larva-larva-pupa-adult
56
What is **ametabolous** metamorphosis?
A common type in more primitive insects like silverfish and springtails where the **animal slowly grows until it reaches adult size**.
57
What is **hemimetabolous** metamorphosis?
A type of metamorphosis in which an organism transforms from an egg, to nymph, to adult.
58
What is **holometabolous** metamorphosis?
Also known as complete metamorphosis, it includes the life cycle of **egg, larva, pupa, and adult**.
## Footnote
Organisms that typically undergo complete metamorphosis include butterflies, moths, ants, beetles, bees.
59
What is a **disadvantage** of complete metamorphosis?
Adults have a short lifespan, limiting the time for reproduction.
60
What is **hypermetamorphosis?**
A type of complete metamorphosis in which there are multiple larval stages.
61
What are the three stages in the life cycle of incomplete metamorphosis?
1. Egg
2. Nymph
3. Adult
## Footnote
Organisms that go through incomplete metamorphosis include grasshoppers, cicadas, and dragonflies.
62
What is the defining stage in complete metamorphosis?
Pupa stage
63
What is the **difference** between learned and innate behavior?
* **Innate behavior**:
* automatic, like a reflex, and does not require conscious thought
* hereditary
* triggered by some specific stimulus
* performed the same way every time
* **Learned behavior**:
* comes from experience
* comes from learning how to respond to a situation or from being taught
* generally get better with practice
64
What does **social behavior** refer to?
The actions and interactions displayed by individuals in the society.
65
What are the three most common types of **social behavior** in animals?
* Dominance hierarchies
* Agonistic behavior
* Territoriality
66
What is a **dominance hierarchy**?
A social group that creates a **linear organization** of power dynamics.
67
What characterizes a **male dominance** hierarchy?
The alpha, beta, and omega structure:
1. Alpha: Most dominant male.
2. Beta: Second in command, supports the alpha.
3. Omega: Least powerful, often submissive.
68
What are some examples of factors that lead to variations in dominance hierarchy?
* Alterations in the environment.
* Fluctuation in the availability of resources.
* Competition in mate selection within groups.
* Displaying strengths.
* Adjustments in group compositions.
* Formation of strategic partnerships.
69
What are the **positive effects** of dominant hierarchies?
* Peaceful transition of power.
* Better outcomes for offspring.
70
What are the **negative effects** of dominant hierarchies?
* Diminished genetic diversity.
* Increased likelihood of inbreeding.
71
What is **agonistic behavior**?
Any behavior that **could be perceived as threatening** to another individual.
## Footnote
Often, agonistic behavior prevents violence from occurring.
72
What are some **examples** of agonistic behaviors?
* Sounds such as growling, squawking, roaring, or neighing.
* Movements such as baring circling, stomping, flapping wings, twisting and snapping beaks, or raising extremities.
* Posturing such as raising feathers or hair to appear larger.
* Social actions such as attempting to steal or throw food and gaining higher ground.
73
What are the positive and negative effects of agonistic behavior?
* **Positive effects** include determining social hierarchy, mating preferences, food distribution, and allocation of respect.
* **Negative effects** can lead to real harm, minor injuries, and reduced overall resource availability.
74
What is **territoriality behavior**?
The defense of territory to secure habitat, resources, and ensure safety for the animal, its mate, and offspring.
75
What is an **example** of territoriality in animals?
Skunks engaging in chemical and biological warfare to protect themselves and their territory by spraying predators with musk.
76
What is **herd mentality**?
The group acts as a single organism.
77
What are the two broad explanations for herd behavior in humans?
* Pattern-Based Model
* Transmission-Based Model
78
What does the **Pattern-Based Model** of herd behavior propose?
It contends that people follow the crowd because they believe there is no way that they could be right and everyone else could be wrong. It promotes the idea that people lack self-confidence in their own ideas.
## Footnote
Example: Movement within the stock market, and biological flocking.
79
What model suggests that people follow the crowd because they do not want to make waves?
Transmission-based Model
80
What model proposes that transmission-based herd behavior results from direct social pressure?
Social Psychology Model
81
What are the **five types** of social behaviors among animals?
* Aggressive
* Mutualistic
* Cooperative
* Altruistic
* Parental
82
What does **agonistic behavior** among animals refer to?
Behavior where one animal attacks another, and the other responds with aggression or through submission.
83
What is the **difference** between agonistic behaviors and aggressive behaviors?
* **Agonistic** behaviors are mostly harmless and do not cause injury.
* **Aggressive** behaviors intend to cause harm.
84
What is **altruism** in biology?
The propensity for an individual to do good for others at their own expense.
## Footnote
Examples: Vampire bats will regurgitate some of their meal to feed hungry bats that have gone without, sacrificing their own food.
85
What are some examples of social behaviors among animals?
* Kin selection
* Dominance hierarchy
* Territorial behavior
* Altruism
86
What is **kin selection** in animals?
When a member of a family or group is chosen by another member performing an altruistic act.
87
What are the **benefits** of social behavior for animals?
* Defense purposes
* Access to potential mates
* Synchronization of productivity
* Cooperation in hunting, survival
* Protection in extreme weather
* Division of labor
88
How are social animals different from solitary animals?
Social animals live in groups for survival, evolve physical and psychological traits to function in groups, and prefer hunting in groups for prey. Solitary animals do not.
89
What is the difference between social animals and solitary animals in terms of **living arrangements**?
* **Social** animals live in groups with other members of their species.
* **Solitary** animals prefer to live alone.
90
What is the primary hunting technique of solitary animals?
Stalking their prey from a concealed place and attacking when in the correct position.
91
What are three benefits of social behavior in animals?
* Mating
* Better hunting in groups
* Protection from predators
92
How does altruism in biology differ from natural selection?
Altruism **lowers the individual fitness** of a single organism but **increases the fitness of an entire group of organisms**.
93
What is **group selection** in altruistic behavior?
Altruistic actions are not necessarily between individuals that share a genetic tie, but are based on investment value.
94
What is the main difference between kin selection and group selection?
* In **kin selection**, individuals contribute to those genetically related to them.
* In **group selection**, altruistic actions are not necessarily linked to genetic relationships.
95
What is animal **migration**?
The consistent and regular movement of animals from one place to another.
96
Why do animals migrate?
* To avoid harsh weather.
* Follow other migratory animals for food sources.
* Reach breeding or nesting grounds.
* Find mates to reproduce.
* Find water sources.
* Avoid predation.
## Footnote
Organisms that migrate include:
* Monarch butterflies
* Sandhill cranes
* Canadian geese
* Greater Snow geese
* Zebras
* Humpback whales
97
What is the **Great Migration**?
A migration phenomenon where millions of herbivores, mainly wildebeests, migrate across the Serengeti Desert in Africa following rain cycles for water and grass.
