4.7 Malfunctions in homeostatic mechanisms

Question 1

What is Hyperthyroidism?

Answer 1

The thyroid is overactive, producing excessive thyroxine, leading to an increase in basal metabolic rate. Symptoms of this include elevated body temperature.

Question 2

What is Hypothyroidism?

Answer 2

The thyroid is underactive, resulting in a reduced basal metabolic rate. Symptoms include decreased body temperature and enlarged thyroid glandvgoitre.

Question 3

What is type 1 diabetes?

Answer 3

Type 1 diabetes is a chronic autoimmune disease in which the beta cells of the pancreas produce little to no insulin, greatly affecting the regulation of blood glucose levels

Question 4

What is type 2 diabetes?

Answer 4

Cells are resistant to insulin, causing high blood glucose. Lifestyle diabetes.

Question 5

What is type 1 diabetes caused by and what might cause the body to do this?

Answer 5

Type 1 diabetes occurs when the immune system specifically turns against the body’s own beta cells in the pancreas, attacking them as if they were foreign cells. This could be due to a lot of genetic and environmental factors e.g certain viral infections have been linked to the onset of type 1 diabetes, as they may trigger an autoimmune response in the body.

Question 6

Why is type 1 diabetes characterised by a blood glucose level that is higher than normal.

Answer 6

Glucose is the main source of energy for body cells, but glucose is too large to diffuse across the plasma membrane and must be actively transported into cells. Insulin facilitates this transportation.
Because insulin production is defective in type 1 diabetes, the body cells of a person affected by this condition cannot take up glucose from the bloodstream.
As a result, the glucose levels in the blood rise above normal, a condition termed hyperglycaemia

Question 7

Why does this increase of glucose in urine occur with someone with diabetes ?

Answer 7

Normally, any glucose that enters the kidney tubules from the bloodstream is reabsorbed back into the blood through a process of active transport.
However, the carrier proteins involved in returning glucose from the fluid in the kidney tubules back into the bloodstream are not able to deal with the high level of glucose filtered from the blood of a person with diabetes.
Therefore, much of the glucose from the bloodstream is lost in the urine instead of being reabsorbed.

Question 8

Why will someone with type 1 diabetes have increased thirst and frequent urination ?

Answer 8

These symptoms arise in response to the higher than normal levels of glucose in the blood. The body increases its output of urine in an attempt to remove the excess glucose from the blood. The large volume of urine excreted means that the loss of water from the body via this route is excessive, and this in turn stimulates thirst.

Question 9

Why will someone with type 1 diabetes have low energy levels, fatigue , extreme hunger and possible weight loss?

Answer 9

These symptoms arise in diabetes sufferers because the body cells are starved of glucose and hence are starved of energy. Without an adequate supply of glucose in body cells, they cannot generate sufficient ATP through cellular respiration to meet their needs. In addition, the loss of glucose from the body in urine can lead to weight loss. Body may begin to break down fat and muscle for energy cos glucose can’t be absorbed by cells leading to increased hunger.

Question 10

Why might someone with untreated diabetes have blurred vision?

Answer 10

Untreated diabetes can lead to high blood sugar levels, which can cause a variety of complications throughout the body. One of the common complications of high blood sugar levels in diabetes is damage to the blood vessels in the eyes. When the small blood vessels in the retina are damaged they can cause blurred vision because the damaged blood vessels can leak fluid and blood into the retina, which can distort vision.

Question 11

How is someone with type 1 diabetes treated?

Answer 11

People with type 1 diabetes are treated with insulin replacement, as they are unable to produce any insulin of their own. This typically occurs by injection or through an insulin pump

Question 12

People with type two diabetes produce insulin but still have high BGLs explain.

Answer 12

In type 2 diabetes, beta cells still produce insulin, but the body cells of a person do not respond to it. Since the insulin cannot carry out its normal function, the glucose levels of a person with type 2 diabetes build up in the blood, leading to hyperglycaemia.

Question 13

What is the treatment of someone with type 2 diabetes?

Answer 13

Lifestyle changes and insulin therapy.

Question 14

What is hypoglycaemia?

Answer 14

Hypoglycaemia, on the other hand, is a condition in which there is too little glucose in the blood.

Question 15

What is hypoglycaemia caused by?

Answer 15

Diabetes medication: Taking too much insulin or other diabetes medications, or taking them at the wrong time, can cause low blood sugar levels.
Skipped or delayed meals: Skipping meals, eating smaller than usual meals, or delaying meals can cause low blood sugar levels.

Question 16

Symptoms of hypoglycaemia.

Answer 16

excessive hungertremblingsweatingnausea.

Question 17

What is the treatment of someone with hypoglycaemia?

Answer 17

It can be treated by giving the affected person a source of glucose, such as glucose tablets, honey or a sweet.

Another treatment for severe hypoglycaemia is through the use of glucagon. In type 1 diabetes, due to the issues with producing insulin, natural glucagon does not work as expected, as the use of insulin and glucagon in the negative feedback loops of glucose regulation is interrupted. Therefore, administered glucagon can counteract the effects of hypoglycaemia by triggering the liver to break down stored glycogen and release this as glucose into the bloodstream. Glucagon medication is usually only used when an individual is not responsive or unconscious, or in cases of severe hypoglycaemia.

Question 18

In some rare cases people without diabetes can develop hypoglycaemia explain some causes.

Answer 18

the production of too much insulin following a meal: this causes blood glucose to drop more than expected

drinking too much alcohol: this can cause damage to liver functionality. Usually, when blood glucose decreases, glucagon from the pancreas acts on the liver to break down stored glycogen into glucose. If the liver is damaged, it can be difficult for the liver to break down glycogen and release glucose.

hepatitis: hepatitis is inflammation of the liver. Similar to drinking too much alcohol, this can prevent the liver from functioning correctly, and not release glucose from glycogen.

some medications: different medications can cause side effects such as hypoglycaemia, such as medication for malaria.

anorexia: blood glucose levels can drop extremely low due to the lack of food consumption

tumours and pancreatic cancer: tumours in the pancreas and pancreatic cancer can affect the production of insulin and glucagon. More particularly, they can cause the overproduction of insulin. Too much insulin can cause blood glucose levels to fall, resulting in hypoglycaemia.

Question 19

What is hyperthyroidism?

Answer 19

In hyperthyroidism, there is excessive production of thyroid hormones which drives up the basal metabolic rate, affecting many functions.

Question 20

What are some symptoms of someone with hyperthyroidism?

Answer 20

an increase in the resting heart ratean elevated body temperaturean increase in appetiteunexplained weight losssensitivity to and sweating in warm conditionsrelative insensitivity to cold conditions.

Question 21

What can cause hyperthyroidism?

Answer 21

Hyperthyroidism may be the result of the growth of nodules on the thyroid or local inflammation. Genetic factors can also predispose a person to hyperthyroidism.

Question 22

What is inflammation?

Answer 22

Inflammation is a natural response of the body’s immune system to injury, infection, or tissue damage.

Question 23

What is graves disease and what happens in grave disease.

Answer 23

Graves’ disease is an autoimmune disorder that causes overactivity of the thyroid gland, resulting in hyperthyroidism.In Graves’ disease, the immune cells target cells in the thyroid gland. These antibodies act like the pituitary hormone, causing the thyroid to produce excess thyroxine rather than producing the amount that allows for homeostatic mechanisms.

Question 24

What are some symptoms of graves disease?

Answer 24

Enlarged thyroid gland , anxiety and fast heartbeat.

Question 25

How can graves disease be treated?

Answer 25

Surgical removal of the thyroid or part of thyroid after surgery hormone supplementation is needed. The patient can undergo radioactive therapy where the cells in the thyroid gland that can uptake iodine are isolate and destroyed which stops the production of T3 AND T4 as iodine is a required to make T3 AND T4.

Question 26

What is hashimotos disease and what happen in hasimoto’s disease ?

Answer 26

Hashimoto disease is an autoimmune condition caused by the immune system attacking its own cells in the thyroid gland . In Hashimoto’s disease, the immune system mistakenly attacks the thyroid gland, causing inflammation and damage to the gland. Over time, this damage can lead to an underactive thyroid gland (hypothyroidism),

Question 27

What are some symptoms of someone with hashimotos disease?

Answer 27

-Enlarged and inflamed underachieve thyroid gland (goitre meaning a overall enlargement of the thyroid).
Fatigue and weakness
Weight gain or difficulty losing weight
Cold intolerance
Constipation
Dry skin and hair
Depression and anxiety
Memory problems
Muscle aches and stiffness
Joint pain and stiffness
Heavy or irregular periods in women

Question 28

How is hashimotos disease treated?

Answer 28

Hormone replacement therapy, which involves taking synthetic thyroid hormone to replace the hormone that the damaged thyroid gland is no longer producing.

Lifestyle changes.

Question 29

Episodes of abnormally low concentration of blood glucose are reported to be less frequent in individuals when an automatic hormone pump is used rather than hormone injections.

Explain why this would be the case.

Answer 29

When a person with diabetes relies on traditional hormone injections, they must manually measure and administer insulin to themselves throughout the day to regulate their blood sugar levels. This can lead to inconsistent insulin delivery, as injections may be forgotten or given at the wrong dosage.

In contrast, an automatic hormone pump continuously delivers small amounts of insulin throughout the day, which can provide more consistent blood sugar control. The pump is also programmed to adjust the insulin delivery based on the individual’s needs, such as before or after meals, exercise, and sleep. This means that the pump can prevent the blood sugar from dropping too low, which can occur if too much insulin is administered or if meals are skipped.

Therefore, the use of an automatic hormone pump can lead to more consistent and precise insulin delivery, reducing the frequency of abnormally low blood glucose concentrations in individuals with diabetes.

Question 30

What is type 2 diabetes caused by?

Answer 30

It is caused by a combination of insulin resistance and beta cell dysfunction.

Insulin resistance occurs when the body’s cells become less responsive to the effects of insulin, As a result, the pancreas produces more insulin to compensate due to the negative feedback , which eventually leads to the pancreas burning out’ leading to beta cell dysfunction and impaired insulin secretion.