4.4 variation and evolution Flashcards
why do organisms show variation in their phenotypes?
due to having different genotypes, the same genotype but different epigenetic modifications, or being exposed to different environments
is variation heritable?
yes
what does variation arise from?
- gene (point) mutations
- crossing over during prophase I of meiosis
- independent assortment during metaphase I and II of meiosis
- random mating i.e that any organism can mate with another
- random fusion of gametes i.e the fertilisation of any male gamete with any female gamete
- environmental factors leading to epigenetic modifications
- environmental factors can also lead to non-heritable variation within a population e.g diet
what are the two types of variation?
- continuous
- discontinuous
what are some examples of continuous variation?
- height
- weight
- heart rate
continuous variation:
- range of phenotypes seen
- variation that cannot be categorised
- controlled by many genes (polygenic)
- follows a ‘normal’ distribution
- produces a continuous range in which a characteristic can take any value
- environmental factors have a major influence e.g diet on weight
what is an example of discontinuous variation?
blood groups
discontinuous variation:
- characteristics fit into distinct groups / can be categorised
- there are no intermediates
- usually controlled by one gene with two or more alleles (monogenic)
- environmental factors have little influence e.g diet has no effect on blood group
is continuous variation usually controlled by one or many genes?
many genes
what is the word for continuous variation being controlled by many genes?
polygenic
does continuous variation follow a normal distribution?
yes
what is it called when discontinuous variation is controlled by one gene?
monogenic
what is the mean?
- a measure of central tendency
- sum of the values divided by the number of values
what is the mode?
the most common value
what is the standard deviation?
- a measure of the variation in the data either side of the mean
if the data is normally distributed, then _____% of the data will lie within 2 standard deviations either side of the mean
95.4%
statistically, if two data sets are significantly different, then no data will overlap within mean + 2SD
how can you compare the means of data values of two populations?
using the t-test
what is the t-test formula?
t = (x̄1 - x̄2) / √ ( (s1)^2 / n1) + ( (s2)^2 / n2))
where:
x̄ = mean of observations
n = no. of observations (sample size)
s = standard deviation
for the t-test to work, must the two sample have the same number of observations?
yes
how to work out the t-test?
- work out the means of each sample
- then subtract one from the other
- then work out the SD for each sample by subtracting the observed value from the mean for EACH observation
- then square EACH value and THEN add them up
- divide this value by the number of observations minus 1 and square root your answer
√ (Σ(x-x̄)^2 / n-1) - work out the standard deviation for the other sample
- square your deviation and divide by the number of observations in that sample, do the same for the other sample, add together and square root your answer
- finally, divide the differences in the means by
√ ( ((s1)^2 / n1) + ((s2)^2 / n2)
where s1= standard deviation for sample 1
your calculated t-value must (exceed/be less than) the critical value in the table for 0.05% (5% probability) for the degrees of freedom (total number of observations in that-2) for you to be sure the differences seen were not due to chance
exceed
what is the degrees of freedom for the t-test?
total number of observations - 2
can environmental influences affect the way a genotype is expressed?
yes
- and result in different phenotypes