4.3 inheritance Flashcards

1
Q

What is genetics?

A

The study of mechanisms by which an organism inherits characteristics from its parents

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

What is the difference between a gene and an allele?

A

A gene is a section of DNA found at a specific position on a chromosome (locus) that codes for a particular polypeptide

Alleles are versions of the same gene which are found at the same locus on homologous chromosomes

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

What is the difference between a heterozygous and homozygous genotype?

A

In a heterozygous genotype the alleles for a given gene are different (e.g. Hh)
In a homozygous genotype the alleles for a given gene are the same (e.g. HH or hh)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

What is Mendel’s first law of inheritance?

A

The law of segregation
Only one of a pair of alleles is present in the gamete
(Each gamete contains only one chromosome from each homologous pair)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

What is the difference between a recessive and a dominant allele?

A

A dominant allele is always expressed within a genotype
A recessive allele is only expressed if both versions of the allele are recessive; it is masked by a dominant allele

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

What is meant by the term phenotype?

A

The observable characteristic of an organism

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

What are codominant alleles?

A

Alleles which are expressed equally in a phenotype
e.g. blood group AB has both A and B alleles

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

What is Mendel’s second law of inheritance?

A

Either member of an allelic pair may combine randomly with either of another pair (provided the genes are not linked) due to independent assortment during metaphase I

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

What is the ‘F2’ generation in a genetic cross?

A

The generation produced as a result of selfing two heterozygous individuals from the F1 generation

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

What are the expected phenotypic ratios within the F2 generation following a monohybrid cross (Yy x Yy)?

A

3:1
3 with dominant characteristic, 1 with recessive characteristic

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

What is the ‘F1’ generation in a genetic cross?

A

The first generation produced as a result of breeding two homozygous individuals, one with the dominant characteristic(s), the other with the recessive characteristic(s)
All offspring are heterozygous, with the dominant trait(s)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q
A
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

What is a linked gene?

A

Genes located close together on the same chromosome that tend to be inherited together

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

What are the expected phenotypic ratios within the F2 generation following a dihybrid cross (YyRr x YyRr)?

A

9:3:3:1
9 with both dominant characteristics, 3 with either dominant characteristic, 1 with both recessive characteristics

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

What do Mendel’s laws of inheritance assume with regard to dihybrid inheritance?

A

The genes are not linked and are located on different chromosomes

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

How is a test cross carried out?

A

Cross the organism with the dominant characteristic with an individual with a recessive genotype.
If all of the offspring have the dominant characteristic, the unknown parent is homozygous.
If only 50% of the offspring have the dominant characteristic, the unknown parent is heterozygous

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

Why are test crosses carried out?

A

To determine whether a dominant characteristic observed in an organism is determined by one or two dominant alleles (homozygous dominant or heterozygous)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

State the expected results if a dihybrid test cross is carried out on a doubly heterozygous individual (YyRr x yyrr)

A

The offspring show a phenotypic ratio of 1:1:1:1

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

Explain why the expected phenotypic ratio from a dihybrid test cross between a doubly heterozygous individual (YyRr) and a doubly recessive individual (yyrr) may not be 1:1:1:1

A

This is due to crossing over of linked genes in prophase I

The recombinants will be present in lower numbers

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

In dihybrid inheritance of linked genes, state the phenotypic ratio which is displayed from a cross between two doubly heterozygous individuals

A

It shows a 3:1 ratio not the expected 9:3:3:1 ratio shown with unlinked genes

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

Draw a diagram showing crossing over of linked genes in prophase I, between two individuals, one doubly homozygous dominant and the other doubly recessive

15
Q

What test can be carried out to investigate if the difference between expected and observed results from a dihybrid cross is due to chance alone or a significant event?

A

Chi-squared

Mendelian genetics is based on the assumption that genes are not linked.
Significant deviation from the expected results suggests that genes are linked

16
Q

How are the ‘degrees of freedom’ calculated?

A

The number of categories minus one (n-1)
In this case, degrees of freedom = 3 (4-1)

16
Q

How are chi-squared results interpreted?

A

If the chi-squared value is greater than the critical value (at 0.05 probability) then the null hypothesis is rejected.
The difference between observed and expected results is significant and not due to chance alone
In a dihybrid test cross this suggests genes are linked

17
Q

What are sex chromosomes known as?

17
Q

What is sex-linked inheritance?

A

Inheritance of genes found on the sex chromosomes (autosomes)

18
Q

Why are most sex-linked disorders linked to the X chromosome?

A

It is much longer than the Y chromosome and contains far more genes

19
Q

Name two sex-linked disorders carried on the X chromosome

A

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD)
Haemophilia

19
Q

Who can be a carrier of a sex-linked disorder on the X chromosome?

A

Only the mother as she has two copies of the gene (XX)

The father will be affected as he only has one copy of the X chromosome (XY)

20
Q

Explain why predominantly males are affected by X linked disorders

A

Males: XY, females XX
If the male inherits the recessive allele from their mother (X chromosome), they have no other copy of the gene and so will inherit the disease
If females inherit the recessive allele from one parent, they will still have one normal copy of the gene

20
Q

Why is haemophilia relatively rare in the female population?

A

The female would have to be doubly recessive to have the condition

21
Q

Is a man able to pass on the haemophilia recessive allele to his son?

A

No. He can only pass the Y chromosome onto his son

21
Q

What is a mutation?

A

A spontaneous, random change in a gene

22
Q

What are the two types of mutation?

A

Chromosomal and gene mutations

Gene (point) mutations affect single bases in a gene

Chromosomal mutations affect many genes

23
Q

What is a gene point mutation?

A

A change to a single nucleotide within DNA

23
Q

In which organisms are mutation rates increased?

A

Those with short life cycles and frequent cell division
e.g. bacteria

24
Q

What are the 3 types of gene point mutation?

A

Silent mutation - same amino acid is coded for
Missense mutation - a different amino acid is coded for
Nonsense mutation - the code is change to STOP

24
Q

What is the consequence of a missense mutation?

A

An alternative amino acid is inserted into the polypeptide chain.
The primary structure is changed, thus potentially altering the secondary and tertiary structures, which will modify the protein’s function.

25
Q

Are all mutations harmful?

A

No - some are neutral and some are beneficial
Beneficial mutations drive evolution, by introducing phenotypes which confer a selective advantage

26
Q

When do mutations occur most frequently?

A

Meiosis - crossing over in Prophase I

  • non-disjunction in Anaphase I and II
27
Q

What type of mutation gives rise to sickle cell anaemia?

A

A missense gene point mutation in the gene for the haemoglobin beta chain, altering the quaternary structure
The misfolded haemoglobin causes the red blood cells to have a sickle cell shape. They are less efficient at carrying oxygen and the red blood cells can clump together in the capillaries causing clots and oxygen deprivation

28
Q

Which type of mutation gives rise to Down’s syndrome?

A

Non-disjunction of the chromosome pair 21

29
Q

When can non-disjunction occur during meiosis?

A

Anaphase I - non-separation of a homologous pair of chromosomes

Anaphase 2 - non-separation of sister chromatids

30
Q

In Down’s syndrome, non-disjunction generally occurs during Anaphase I. Does this occur before or after puberty?

A

After puberty - during maturation of the secondary oocyte prior to ovulation

Before puberty the secondary oocyte within the ovary is suspended at Prophase I, so will not have undergone Anaphase I yet.

Prior to ovulation a secondary oocyte matures and progresses to Metaphase II, having undergone Anaphase I.

31
Q

Are there more gametes affected by non-disjunction in Anaphase I or Anaphase II?

A

Anaphase I - every gamete will be affected
(In Anaphase II - half of the gametes are affected)

32
Q

What is epigenetics?

A

The study of changes in gene expression without any changes to the DNA sequence

33
Q

What are the main epigenetic changes?

A

DNA methylation - a methyl group is attached to a DNA base, preventing transcription of the gene and protein synthesis

Histone modification - the proteins around which the DNA is coiled can be modified to coil the DNA more tightly, preventing gene expression, or more loosely to increase gene expression

34
Q

Give examples of mutagens, which increase the rate of mutation.

A

Ionising radiation - gamma radiation, UV light, X-rays

Chemicals including polycyclic hydrocarbons in cigarette smoke

35
Q

What is a carcinogen?

A

A mutagen which causes cancer

36
Q

What is a proto-oncogene?

A

A gene that regulates cell division.
If this is mutated, it will become an oncogene, causing uncontrolled cell division and cancer