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A level Psychology > 4.2.1 Approaches in psychology > Flashcards

4.2.1 Approaches in psychology Flashcards

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1
Q

State the history of psychology (9 stages)

A
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2
Q

Name 5 features that make something a science

A
  1. Objectivity
  2. Control
  3. Predictability
  4. Hypothesis Testing
  5. Replication
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3
Q

Define Objectivity

(features that make something a science)

A

Scientific observations are recorded without bias

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4
Q

Define Control

(features that make something a science)

A

Scientific observations take place under controlled conditions

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5
Q

Define Predictability

(features that make something a science)

A

Scientists using results and knowledge gained from experimenting to predict future behaviours

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6
Q

Define Replication

(features that make something a science)

A

Each experiment replicated exactly = people have confidence in the results

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7
Q

Define Hypothesis Testing

(features that make something a science)

A

Theories generate hypotheses = can be tested to strengthen/disprove theory

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8
Q

Who was Wilhelm Wundt and what did he do for psychology?

A
  • Father of psychology
    • 1st psychologist - 1875 created 1st psychological laboratory in Germany, Leipzig
    • Separated psychology from philosophy, physiology and biology
      • → focused on studying mind in more structured/scientific way
    • Using structuralist and reductionist approach, tried to uncover what people were thinking/experiencing
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9
Q

What is reductionism?

A

Idea that things can be reduced to simple cause-and-effect processes

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10
Q

Since Wundt believed in reductionism and came from a biological background, he wished & believed…

A

Wished to study structure of human mind & believed behaviours such as perception and sensation could be broken down into smaller, measurable parts

(used introspection to measure these parts)

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11
Q

What is introspection?

A
  • Method of collecting data
    • Involves observing & describing inner mental states
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12
Q

Introspection was the __ ____ _____ attempt to study the mind

A

1st systematic experimental

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13
Q

Describe how Wundt conducted introspection

A
  • Trained participants to become self-aware enough to observe/report back their inner mental processes and emotional states
  • Then asked participants to describe their experiences when presented with a controlled stimulus (e.g. pictures or auditory tones)
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14
Q

What did introspection allow Wundt to do?

A

Analyse different participant responses = general theories about perception/mental processes

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15
Q

Name 2 pros of introspection

A
  1. More than just passive acceptance of facts
  2. Way which scientific method is carried out = casual relationship
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16
Q

Explain how introspection is more than just passive acceptance of facts

A
  1. Relies on objective & systematic methods of observation
  2. Data acquired using scientific method
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17
Q

Name 3 cons of introspection

A
  1. Unreliable
  2. Inaccurate
  3. Lack of ecological validity
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18
Q

Explain how introspection is unreliable

A
  • Relies on unobservable behaviour
    • e.g. Participants report on unobservable processes like memory and perception ∴ their accounts can’t be confirmed
  • ∴ Replicating Wundt’s work ≠ same results = research unreliable
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19
Q

Explain how introspection is inaccurate

A
  • Nisbett and Wilson: have little understanding/awareness of causes of our own behaviour
  • ∴ introspection = inaccurate ∵ can’t self-report on processes aren’t aware of
    • e.g. person = implicitly racist, but ∵ attitude exists
      outside of their conscious awareness = cannot report reason/cause of their behaviour
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20
Q

Describe the emergence of psychology as a science

A
  1. Emerged due to empiricism (empiricists believe knowledge comes from observation and experience)
  2. Early psychology had 2 assumptions: behaviour is caused
    by something & ∴ predictable
    1. Assumptions developed into scientific method
  3. Waston’s and Skinner’s development of research = laboratory experiments + controlling variables
  4. Developments of technology (e.g. EEG scans = objective evidence of brain activity)
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21
Q

Is psychology a science?

State 2x ‘for’

A
  • Allport (1947): psychology same aim as science
    • To predict, understand and control
  • Behavioural, cognitive & biological approaches use scientific procedures to investigate theories
    • Controlled and unbiased
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22
Q

Is psychology a science?

State 3x ‘against’

A
  • Some approaches don’t use objective methods to study behaviour
    • Use unreliable methods e.g. interview techniques = biased and interpreted differently
  • Hard to get representative sample of population for a study
    • ∴ findings can’t be reliably generalised
  • Psychological experiments open to extraneous variables e.g. demand characteristics = hard to control
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23
Q

How did behaviourism (‘Learning Theory’) come about?

A
  • Started in America in 1900s mainly through John Watson
  • Felt earlier psychological research wasn’t scientific enough
  • ∴ came up assumptions on which to base a scientific approach to psychology
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24
Q

What are the 4 basic assumptions of the behavioural approach?

A
  1. Behaviour is learned from past experience
  2. ONLY concerned with observable behaviour
  3. It’s valid to study behaviour of animals as they share same
    principles of learning
  4. We are born a blank slate & are product of our environment - no biological influence
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25
Q

What is classical conditioning?

A

Type of learning in which an existing involuntary reflex response is associated with a new stimulus

(aka Learning by assocation)

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26
Q

Who discovered classical conditioning and when (& doing what)?

A

Ivan Pavlov (in Russia - early 1900s) while conducting work on dogs

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27
Q

Describe how Pavlov discovered classical conditioning

A
  • Was investigating salivation processes & noticed dogs would salivate before they got food
  • Noticed they salivated when a stimulus was presented that coincided with feeding time (e.g. person)
  • Conducted an experiment: gave food & rang bell at same time - repeated this procedure
  • Eventually, bell itself = dogs salivating ∵ made association between bell & food
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28
Q

Draw the process of classical conditioning (Pavlov’s experiment)

A
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29
Q

Name the 5 important features that Pavlov discovered about classical conditioning

A
  1. Timing
  2. Extinction
  3. Spontaneous recovery
  4. Stimulus generalisation
  5. Stimulus discrimination
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30
Q

Explain ‘timing’ in classical conditioning

A

Conditioning only occurs if 2 stimuli are presented at the same time

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31
Q

Explain ‘extinction’ in classical conditioning

A

Newly established response can be terminated

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32
Q

Explain ‘spontaneous recovery’ in classical conditioning

A

Following extinction: if 2 stimuli paired together again = association between them is made quicker

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33
Q

Explain ‘stimulus generalisation’ in classical conditioning

A

If stimulus has characteristics that are close to conditioned stimulus = CR will still be produced

(e.g. bell with higher pitch)

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34
Q

Explain ‘stimulus discrimination’ in classical conditioning

A

There’s a cut-off point when stimulus generalisation will not occur ∵ stimulus is too different to be generalised

(e.g. using a tune instead of a bell)

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35
Q

Give an example of classical conditioning occuring in the real world

A
  1. Babies: Attachments are leaned through stimulus of food (UCS) producing a happy response (UCR)
  2. Natural response to being fed (happiness = inborn reflex)
  3. However, when food is paired with the mum (who gives the food) = she becomes a conditioned stimulus
  4. Eventually, mum on her own = happy response from infant ∵ of association between the 2 stimuli (food and mum)
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36
Q

What was the aim of Waston and Rayner’s Little Albert study (1920)?

A

See if humans can acquire fear through classical conditioning

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37
Q

Describe the method used in Waston and Rayner’s Little Albert study

A
  1. 11-month old boy presented with series of stimuli (white rat)
  2. Initially, showed no fear response
  3. Researchers struck metal bar behind him = loud noise → automatic fear response (UCR)
  4. Every time Albert reached for the rat, paired it with a loud noise
  5. Repeated twice at first, 5 more times a week later
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38
Q

What were the findings of Waston and Rayner’s Little Albert study?

A

Albert presented with white rat = upset and cry

+ extended to other white fluffy objects

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39
Q

What was the conclusion of Waston and Rayner’s Little Albert study?

A

A fear response to white fluffy objects had been conditioned in Little Albert = possible to use classical conditioning to learn a fear response

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40
Q

Name a pro of Waston and Rayner’s Little Albert study (1920)

A

Supports Pavlov’s Research

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41
Q

Explain how Waston and Rayner’s Little Albert study support Pavlov’s research

A
  • Shows how human can learn via classical condition
    • Little Albert learned to associate all white fluffy animals with feeling of fear
    • Strengthens behavioural theory
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42
Q

Name 3 cons of Waston and Rayner’s Little Albert study (1920)

A
  1. Unethical
  2. Conducted on one participant
  3. Laboratory study
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43
Q

Explain how the Waston and Rayner’s Little Albert study was unethical (& why this is a problem)

A
  • Conducted without consent + involves harming participant
  • Cannot be replicated → affects validity/accuracy of classical conditioning as an explanation for human behaviour
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44
Q

Explain what the problem was with conducting an experiment on 1 person?

(Waston and Rayner’s Little Albert study)

A

Cannot be generalised to wider population ∴ can’t say classical conditioning explains fear in all humans

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45
Q

Explain what’s the issue with a laboratory study?

(Waston and Rayner’s Little Albert study)

A

Lacks ecological validity as situation was artificial

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46
Q

What is operant conditioning?

A

Learning through consequences of behaviour

(behaviour rewarded = it’ll be maintained/increased)

(if it’s punished = behaviour ceases)

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47
Q

What is positive reinforcement?

A

Receiving a reward when a certain behaviour is performed

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48
Q

What is negative reinforcement?

A

Occurs when human/animal performs a certain behaviour to AVOID something unpleasant

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49
Q

When did Skinner do his research?

A

1938

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50
Q

What was Skinner’s work?

A

Animal research in labs, using reinforcement & punishment in shaping behaviour

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51
Q

Describe Skinner’s method

A
  1. Put a rat at a time in Skinner box (which he made)
  2. Skinner box contained variety of stimuli (food dispenser which released food when lever was pressed, water, light, loudspeaker and floor which could give electric shocks)
  3. Hungry rats were placed inside box & time taken for rat to learn that pressing the lever would release food was recorded
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52
Q

Describe Skinner’s findings

A
  • Initially, rats accidentally pressed the lever (by running around box) and received a food pellet (reward)
  • Eventually, they learned that pressing lever = food ∴ they pressed the lever repeatedly
  • & the more the rat was put into the box = quicker they got at learning where the lever was
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53
Q

Describe Skinner’s conclusion

A
  • Rats learn behaviour through operant conditioning
  • Behaviour e.g. pressing lever can be positively reinforced by using food
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54
Q

State a pro of Skinner’s research

A

Experiment → hugely influential in promoting idea of behavioural psychology

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55
Q

State 2 cons of Skinner’s research

A
  • Experiment used animals ∴ results not generalisable to humans
  • Sample size was small = reducing reliability of his results
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56
Q

Give a real-life example of operant conditioning

A

Eating disorders can be explained via operant conditioning:

  1. Initially, person goes on diet to lose weight
  2. They receive positive reinforcement (e.g. compliments from others) & negative reinforcement (e.g. removal of negative comments)
  3. ∵ person is being reinforced for losing weight → continue to eat less and less = eating disorder
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57
Q

Name a pro of conditioning

A
  • Real life applications
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58
Q

Name 3 cons of conditioning

A
  • Deterministic
  • Animal research
  • Ethics of animal studies
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59
Q

Evaluating Conditioning: Elaborate the pro - real life applications

A

Principles of conditions = applicable to real life

  • e.g. operant conditioning = basis of token economy systems in prisons and psychiatric wards
    • Works by rewarding appropriate behaviour with tokens that can be exchanged for rewards
  • Classical conditioning can be used to treat phobias
    • (teaching relaxation response in place of fear response = new association with stimulus)
  • Effectiveness of this approach only possible if behaviourist approach has validity as explanation for behaviour and learning
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60
Q

Evaluating Conditioning: Elaborate the con - Deterministic

A

Only focuses on observable behaviour = doesn’t account for free will and cognitive processes

  • Classical
    • Assumes behaviour always remains same until unlearnt
    • Not true since people are known to change behaviour dramatically due to free will
    • May be better explained through cognitive explanations = able to link behaviour to prior thoughts
      • Undermines behaviourist explanations = don’t account for this
  • Operant
    • Can’t explain impulsive or spontaneous behaviours
    • May not have perceived benefit & so explanation is too simplified and not holistic
    • Suggests have no control over our behaviour & act on reinforcement
    • Ethical/legal issues = not responsible for actions ∵ no free will
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61
Q

Evaluating Conditioning: Elaborate the con - animal research

A
  • Difficult to generalise findings to human behaviour
  • Even though research = animals learn through classical/operant conditioning ≠ conclude that humans also display behaviour
    • Animals simpler in thought patterns while humans can think beyond simple scenarios
    • Behaviourist explanations don’t account for this
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62
Q

Evaluating Conditioning: Elaborate the con - ethics of animal studies

A
  • Experiments e.g. Skinner’s = exposure to stressful and harmful situations
    • = psychological and physical harm to animals
    • = caused change in behaviours seen = behaviour not true representation of animal
    • = weakens conditioning
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63
Q

What did Wundt intially believe about ALL aspects of human behaviour, but then realised (& how)?

A
  • That it could be investigated via experiments using introspection
  • Later realised that learning, language and emotions can’t be studied through lab experiments
  • ∵ self-reports = unreliable + difficult to replicate + subjective down to individual
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64
Q

What does the Social Learning Theory look to do?

A

Looks at the step between the stimulus and response and accounts for some meditational (cognitive) processes

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65
Q

Describe how SLT believes we learn

A
  • SLT suggests we observe role models carrying out a certain behaviour
  • We then imitate this behaviour
    • More likely to imitate if we identify with model
  • Vicarious reinforcement decides whether behaviour is imitated
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66
Q

What is vicarious reinforcement?

A

When we see someone else being reinforced for their behaviour = motivates us to imitate the behaviour

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67
Q

What are the 4 meditational processes that are used when imitating behaviour?

A
  1. Attention
  2. Retention
  3. Reproduction
  4. Motivation

(ARRM)

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68
Q

Describe the meditational process attention

A

We must notice the behaviour being displayed by the role model

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69
Q

Describe the meditational process retention

A

We then retain the information (what we observed) in our long term memory

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70
Q

Describe the meditational process reproduction

A

If we are physically able, we will then demonstrate the observed behaviour

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71
Q

Describe the meditational process motivation

A

If there is a level of incentive, we will continue to demonstrate this behaviour in the future

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72
Q

When did the research: Bandura, Ross and Ross (imitation of aggressive models) take place?

A

1961

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73
Q

What was the aim of Bandura’s study?

A
  • Examine the effect of a model on behaviour
  • Examine if sex of model influences same-sex and opposite-sex participants to different degrees
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74
Q

Describe the method of Bandura’s study

A
  1. 36 girls & 36 boys (aged 3-6), 2 adults (1 female + 1 male) = role of model
  2. 3 conditions (12 girls and 12 boys in each)
    1. Condition 1: observed aggressive adult model playing with a Bobo doll
    2. Condition 2: observed non-aggressive model playing with toys and ignoring Bobo doll
    3. Condition 3 (control group): no exposure to model
  3. After 10 minutes: children taken to room with toys but not allowed to play with them (aggression arousal)
  4. Then went to another room with aggressive toys (e.g. Bobo doll, mallet) & non-aggressive toys (e.g. tea set, crayons)
  5. Children’s behaviour observed for 20 minutes
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75
Q

What were the results of Bandura’s study? (5x)

A
  1. Condition 1: Children more aggressive than children from other 2 condtions
    • Imitated specific aggressive acts displayed by model
  2. Condtion 2: Barely any aggressive behaviour
  3. Aggressive behaviour was higher in control condition than non-aggressive condition
  4. Boys showed higher aggression than girls
  5. Increase in aggression was shown when model was same sex as participant
76
Q

What was the conclusion of Bandura’s study?

A

Observing aggressive behaviour can lead to imitation of behaviour (even after a delay)

77
Q

Name 2 pros of Bandura’s study

A
  • Evidence for social learning theory
  • Strict control of the variables = results likely to be reliable and study can be replicated
78
Q

Name 3 cons of Bandura’s study

A
  • Low ecological validity ∵ participants weren’t in natural situation
  • Unethical
    • Study encouraged aggression in children
  • Difficult to generalise the results ∵ limited sample was studied
    • Children were all from same school
79
Q

Name a pro of the social learning theory

A

Importance of cognitive factors

80
Q

Elaborate on the pro: ‘importance of cognitive factors’

(Social Learning Theory)

A
  • Expands on limitations of conditioning
    • i.e. Classical/operant conditioning ≠ cognitive processes occurring between stimulus & resulting behaviour
    • VS SLT accounts for meditational processes = has more face validity as thoughts proceeding behaviour = people can generally relate to
81
Q

Name 3 cons of the social learning theory

A
  • Can’t explain behaviour when there’s no role model
  • Human behaviours is influenced by set of external and internal factors
  • Causality
82
Q

Elaborate on the con: ‘Can’t explain behaviour when there’s no role model’

(Social Learning Theory)

A
  • e.g. when imitation resolves around psychopathic/abnormal behaviours = limited to 1 person in family ∴ no opportunity to learn from model
  • ∴ SLT ≠ explanation for all behaviours → biological explanations may be better for cases with mental disorders
83
Q

Elaborate on the con: ‘Human behaviours is influenced by set of external and internal factors ‘

(Social Learning Theory)

A
  • e.g. SLT suggests: development of gender role behaviour due to modeling through peers, parents & media
  • BUT genetic pre-dispositions & person’s internal locus of control is not considered
  • Difficult to say for certain that SL causes behaviour rather than innate factors
84
Q

Elaborate on the con: ‘causality’

(Social Learning Theory)

A
  • Issue proving others cause the change in an individual’s behaviour
    • e.g. SLT = teenagers display deviant behaviour due to imitating this from peers
    • However, Siegel and McCormick argue that individual may possesses certain traits = vulnerable to deviant behaviour
      • & may JUST surround themselves with similar individuals
    • May be confounding variables (e.g. individual differences) that affect behaviour
85
Q

What does the cognitive approach focus on and how?

A
  • Focuses on people’s perception, interpretation, storage & manipulation of information
  • By studying internal mental processes to understand behaviour

(study of internal mental processes)

86
Q

What are the 2 assumptions of the cognitive approach?

A
  1. Thought processes should be studied scientifically through lab studies
  2. Mind works like a computer
87
Q

What does the cognitive approach refer to?

A

Refers to the information processing model and metaphors e.g. “encoding” = used to explain what occurs within the human brain

88
Q

As cognitive processes aren’t visible to be tested directly, what do psychologists do?

A

Study them indirectly by making inferences about results gained from observing behaviour

89
Q

What are schemas?

A

Cognitive framework that represent ideas/expectations the person holds about a person or situation

90
Q

How are schemas formed and what do they help us to do?

A

Form through experience & help us understand + predict world around us

91
Q

Why are schemas unique to each individual & what does this mean?

A

∵ our experiences = subjective to ourselves

∴ we see our version of reality, see world based on our interpretation of our experiences

92
Q

Schemas help to fill…

A

gaps when information lacking based on past experiences

93
Q

Why are schemas filling gaps a bad thing?

A

Means we focus on things that confirm our pre-existing beliefs & ideas rather than allow us to accept new ones

94
Q

What happens when information is consistent with a schema?

A

It’s assimilated into schema

95
Q

What happens when information is inconsistent with a schema?

A

Accommodation occurs & schema changes to resolve problem

96
Q

What is assimilation?

A

Cognitive process of fitting new information into existing schemas (+ perceptions & understanding)

97
Q

What is accommodation?

A

Cognitive process of revising existing schemes (, perceptions and understanding) = new information can be incorporated

98
Q

Give an example of assimilation

A

e.g. child’s schema for apple = green & edible

Every time they see apple that matches this = schema is strengthened

99
Q

Give an example of accommodation

A

e.g. apple is red = child’s schema changes to accommodate this info

100
Q

Name 3 types of schemas

A
  • Role Schemas
  • Self-schemas
  • Event Schemas
101
Q

What are role schemas?

A

Ideas about behaviour that is expected from someone in a certain role, setting or situation

102
Q

Give an example of a role schema

A

e.g. teachers should be helpful

103
Q

What is a self-schema?

A

Info about ourselves based on physical characteristic and personality + beliefs and values → affect how you act

104
Q

Give an example of a self-schema

A

e.g. says your are sporty = likely to be good at sports

105
Q

What are event schemas (AKA scripts)?

A

Stored information about what is expected of you in certain situations

106
Q

Give an example of an event schema

A

e.g. in a restaurant you are expected to order food

107
Q

Why do cognitive psychologists use models?

A

∵ they’re researching concepts that you can’t physically see so they use models to make inferences about human behaviour

108
Q

What is a theoretical model?

A

Simplified representation of a mental process, based on current research evidence

109
Q

Theoretical models are often p_____…

A

Often pictorial = boxes & arrows show different stages of mental processes

110
Q

Give an example of a model attempting to explain a thinking pattern

A

Multistore model explains how sensory information is processed and stored within memory

111
Q

What are inferences?

A

Drawing conclusion based on evidence and reasoning

112
Q

What are computer models?

A

Use computer analogies to represent human cognitive processes

113
Q

What does a computer model assume (& give an example)?

A

Assumes mind works like a computer through series of processing steps

e.g. processing model: simple 3-step process = input, processing and output

114
Q

Give 2 examples of computer angalogies that are used to represent human cognitive processes

A
  • e.g. long-term memory is compared to hard-drive of computers memory
  • RAM = working memory & temporary workspace
115
Q

Models provide a means to ___ _______ ______

A

test individual elements

116
Q

Name 3 pros of models

A
  1. Very precise = allows for more scientific testing to verify model
  2. Help develop clear understanding of internal mental processes (e.g. AI machines diagnose medical conditions)
  3. Built on strengths of previous models & weakness are eliminated
117
Q

Name a con of a theoretical model

A
  • Simplistic view of human behaviour
    • Don’t account for factors like emotions
118
Q

What is cognitive neuroscience?

A

Scientific process of studying how brain structure affects mental processes

119
Q

Why did cognitive neuroscience emerge?

A

Due to advancement of technology

120
Q

What do brain scanning technologies tell us?

A

Brain structures involved in different mental processing

121
Q

What is neuroimaging?

A

Brain scans techniques to investigate which brain areas are active when performing certain tasks

122
Q

Give 2 examples of neuroimaging

A

PET scans and FMRI highlight different parts of brain as active when engaging in cognitive activities that test memory, perception, attention & even emotions

123
Q

What are lesion studies?

A

Looking at patients with brain damage to investigate how behaviour is affected

124
Q

Name 2 pros of cognitive neuroscience

A
  • More Rounded Viewpoint
  • Objective & Scientific
125
Q

Cognitive Neuroscience: Elaborate on the pro ‘More Rounded Viewpoint’

A
  • Combines cognitive with brain activity and scans
    • More in-depth & detailed information about how cognitive processes work
126
Q

Cognitive Neuroscience: Elaborate on the pro ‘Objective & Scientific’

A
  • Objective
    • Relies on evidence from scans/imagining techniques to measure cognitive processes
    • Process = measurable & clearly identifies biological components in cognitive processes (memory and perception)
127
Q

Name 2 cons of cognitive neuroscience

A
  • Lacks Ecological Validity
  • Correlation Research
128
Q

Cognitive Neuroscience: Elaborate on the con ‘Correlation Research’

A

Impossible to prove altered brain activity causes a change in behaviour

e.g. cannot be proven that change in activity in Parahippocampal Gyrus is cause of OCD behaviours, or an effect of it

129
Q

Cognitive Neuroscience: Elaborate on the con ‘Lacks Ecological Validity ‘

A
  • Lots of techniques involve lying in small confined spaces while completing tasks
  • Unlikely to represent real life activity of cognitive processing
130
Q

Outline the biological approach (be very brief)

A

Explains all behaviour through biology (includes how evolution
may have shaped human behaviour)

131
Q

Name 3 assumptions of the biological approach

A
  1. Genes
    • Behaviours occur due to inheritance of certain genes
  2. Central Nervous System
    • Brain is thought to influence behaviour
  3. Chemistry of the body
    • Varying levels of chemistry can result in different behaviours
132
Q

What do genes carry?

A

Instructions for development of characteristics

133
Q

What is a genotype?

A
  • Person’s individual make-up
    • Provides genetic code for how individual should develop their characteristics
134
Q

What is a phenotype?

A
  • Characteristics expressed by an individual
    • Expressed once genotype interacts with environment
135
Q

Give an example of a feature affected by both a genotype and phenotype

A

Height

Genotype = indicates maximum height but environmental factors (nutrition) impact this → may not reach genetic potential

136
Q

What is the psychological perspective on genotypes and phenotypes?

A

Behaviours arise due to interaction between physical make-up (genotype) and environment around us (phenotype)

e.g. may be genetic pre-disposition for aggression but without specific environmental feature = behaviour will never develop

137
Q

Most aspects of behaviour are under…

A

neurones control (e.g. breathing, eating)

138
Q

What is neurochemistry?

A

Study of nervous system and neurotransmitters

139
Q

Describe the influence of neurochemistry on behaviour

A
  • Neurotransmitters can affect behaviour
    • Too much or too little of certain neurotransmitters = psychological disorders
140
Q

Give 2 examples of too much or too little of certain neurotransmitters producing psychological disorders

A
  • Increased dopamine levels = linked to schizophrenia
    • (cocaine increases dopamine levels = schizophrenia like symptoms)
  • Low levels of serotonin = increased aggression (Crocket et al 2008)
141
Q

What does evolutionary psychology suggest?

A

Behaviours develop and evolve as they’re adaptive

Happens via natural selection

142
Q

Describe how behaviours develop and evolve via natural selection

A
  1. Random mutation in genetic make-up = physical or behavioural change
  2. If mutation (behaviour) enhances survival (by defeating competition) = passed genetically through future generations
  3. Adaptive qualities that are beneficial = naturally selected over time
143
Q

Give an example of a various psychological characteristic that can be explained through evolutionary psychology

A
  • In our ancestral history: aggression was necessary behaviour to increase survival (hence why we have it)
  • MAMO gene = possible explanation for aggression = developed through environmental pressures of the past
144
Q

Behaviour is influenced by n___ ________

A

neural mechanisms

145
Q

Name 5 brain scans

A
  • CAT Scans
  • PET Scans
  • MRI Scans
  • Functional MRI Scans
  • SQUID Magnetometry
146
Q

What do CAT scans investigate?

A

Damaged parts of brain, tumours and blood clots

147
Q

What do PET scans investigate?

A

Areas of brain area active during different tasks

148
Q

What do MRI scans investigate?

A

Small tumours & brain structure

149
Q

What do functional MRI scans investigate?

A

Structural and functional information

150
Q

What does SQUID magnetometry investigate?

A

Brain activity by measuring magnetic fields generated when neurones are activated

151
Q

Give 2 examples of how neural mechanisms had lead to a greater understanding of human behaviours

A
  1. Bard and Mountcastle (1948) = aggression increases in cats when brains were lesioned
    • ∴ aggression may be caused by damage to hypothalamus and amygdala
  2. Difference in prefrontal cortex of Schizophrenic patients (Szesko 1995)
152
Q

Outline a piece of research that suggests that neural mechanisms influence behaviour

A

Brooks (1986)

  1. Interviewed relatives of 42 brain-damage patients, 5 years after their injuries
  2. Reported patients’ behaviour had changed = showed bizarre, violent behaviour
  3. Suggest link between neural mechanisms and behaviour
153
Q

Outline a piece of research that suggests that neurotransmitters affect behaviour

A

Zubieta (2000)

  1. Used PET scans on patients with manic depression
  2. Depressed patients = 30% higher levels of dopamine and serotonin
  3. Suggests neurochemical influence on behaviour
154
Q

Name 2 pros of the biological approach

A
  • Clearer predictions for behaviour
  • High validity
155
Q

Biological approach: Elaborate on pro ‘High validity’

A
  • Investigate by using objective and scientific methods (MRI scans) e.g. experimental method = high validity
    • Highly controlled laboratory setting = reliable ∵ can replicate experiment to verify results
    • Results gained = more objective ∵ based on biology compared to subjective reporting or observations = more valid
      • ∴ biological approach is based on reliable data
156
Q

Biological approach: Elaborate on pro ‘Clearer Predictions for Behaviour’

A
  • e.g. predicting effects of neurotransmitters on behaviour = easier when looking at those genetically related
    • Contributed to development of drug treatments & real world applications
      • e.g. high concordance rates between family members for depression = identifying common neurochemical imbalances & creating drug therapies to reduce depressive symptoms
      • Research of biological rhythms = improvement of working conditions for people
157
Q

Name 2 cons of the biological approach

A
  • Reductionist
  • Explaining behaviour through biology (e.g. genetics) = raises ethical issues
158
Q

Biological approach: Elaborate on con ‘Reductionist’

A
  • Tries to break down complex human behaviour & explain through smallest parts (e.g. genetics, hormones)
  • Doesn’t allow us to consider other possible explanations for behaviour (e.g. cognitive)
  • Disregards fact that humans have free will & ability for conscious thoughts = limitation
159
Q

Biological approach: Describe how explaining behaviour through biology (e.g. genetics) raises ethical issues

A

Especially when applied to criminality:

  • Trying to explain criminal behaviour through genetics = genetic screening of population to identify those with predisposition for criminal behaviour
    • These people may be stigmatised even they pose no risk
    • May use this as defence to avoid taking responsibility for behaviour within courts
160
Q

Describe how genetic screening can be benefical

A
  • Screening could be used to help people at risk of developing disorders
    • Avoid situations which may trigger them
    • Develop coping skills = prevent them being vulnerable
161
Q

What does the genetic basis of behaviour focus on?

A

Finding how much behaviour is influenced by genetics

162
Q

Describe how heritability (genetic basis of behaviour) can be unraveled

A

By using identical and non-identical twins

Identical twins show higher likelihood of sharing behavioural disorders than non-identical ones = genetic cause

163
Q

What are concordance rates?

A

The extent to which both twins display same behaviour

164
Q

Name the piece of research that supports genetic basis of
behaviour

A

Gottesman (1991) - Meta-analysis of twin studies

165
Q

Gottesman (1991): Describe the method

A

Meta analysis of 40 twin studies

166
Q

Gottesman (1991): Describe the findings

A

Having an identical twin with schizophrenia = 48% chance of developing the condition

Non-identical twins = 17%

167
Q

Gottesman (1991): Describe the conclusion

A

Schizophrenia = genetic basis

168
Q

Name 1 pro of Gottesman’s (1991) research

A

Objective research = internal validity

169
Q

Name 2 cons of Gottesman’s (1991) research

A
  1. Correlational research
  2. Concordance rates ≠ 100% so schizophrenia isn’t only caused by genes
170
Q

Name 2 studies the support the cognitive approach

A
  • Bartlett’s War of the Ghosts (1932)
  • Simons and Charbis (1999) - Gorillas in our midst
171
Q

Simons and Charbis (1999) - Gorillas in our midst

Aim

A

To test selective attention

172
Q

Simons and Charbis (1999) - Gorillas in our midst

Method

A
  • Participants shown video of people playing basketball
  • Told to count how many passes made between players in white
173
Q

Simons and Charbis (1999) - Gorillas in our midst

Findings

A
  • Participants who got correct number of passes = didn’t notice gorilla
    • Giving evidence for selective attention
  • However, those you got incorrect number/gave up = saw the gorilla
174
Q

Simons and Charbis (1999) - Gorillas in our midst

Pro

A
  • Scientific natures allowed study to replicated by other researchers
    • = similar results found
    • Good level of reliability = supports idea inattention causes us to miss things
175
Q

Simons and Charbis (1999) - Gorillas in our midst

Con

A
  • Lacks ecological validity
    • Artificial setting = not representative of real-life behaviour
    • = difficult to see that findings would be found in real-life conditions
176
Q

Bartlett’s War of the Ghosts (1932)

Method

A
  • English participants were read Native American folk tale - ‘The War of the Ghosts’
  • Had unfamiliar story with strange names, ideas and objects + different structure
  • Participants were asked to recall story after different lengths of time
177
Q

Bartlett’s War of the Ghosts (1932)

Findings

A
  • Recall of story = inaccurate
    • Details became more English, with different names & reflections of English culture
  • As length of time between hearing the story & recall increases, accuracy reduced
178
Q

Bartlett’s War of the Ghosts (1932)

Conclusion

A
  • People use schemas to interpret & understand world around them
    • = lead to inaccuracies in recall
179
Q

Bartlett’s War of the Ghosts (1932)

Evaluation: pro

A
  • Demonstrates that schematic information can distort memory
    • Carries implcaitions for real life memory e.g. relying on Eye Witness testimonies
180
Q

Bartlett’s War of the Ghosts (1932)

Evaluation: con

A

Lacked ecological validity = laboratrory experiment

181
Q

Cognitive Apporach Evaluation

Name 2 pros

A
  • Real world applications
  • Scientific Rigour
182
Q

Cognitive Apporach Evaluation

Elaborate on the pro: Real world applications

A
  • Real Life:
    • Development of CBT based treatments = effective in treatment of OCD & depression
      • Which could only be effective if the problems themselves were cognitive based
  • Social psychology
    • Understand how we form impressions of others
    • & how form biases that influence how we interpret other peoples behaviours due to our schema’s
183
Q

Cognitive Apporach Evaluation

Name 2 cons

A
  • Lacks Ecological Validity
  • Machine Reductionism
184
Q

Cognitive Apporach Evaluation

Elaborate on the con: Lacks Ecological Validity

A
  • Use contrive tasks that have little to do with everyday behaviour in natural settings
    • e.g. in labs: use methods to test memory that people would unlikely face (e.g. random word lists or digits)
    • Isn’t like how memory is used in everyday life + doesn’t explain how people forget memories
  • Drawing conclusions into experiments which lack ecological validity → lack external validity & generalisation to real life situations
    • Doesn’t reflect real life behaviour
185
Q

Cognitive Apporach Evaluation

Elaborate on the con: Machine Reductionism

A
  • Relies on computer models to explain how human coding occurs
  • Huge difference between information processing that occurs in machines and human mind
    • e.g. human minds prone to errors, forgetting or “retrieving” incorrect information from memories → computers don’t do
  • Basing cognitive processes on computer-based understanding lacks validity ∵ not how human mind works
    • limits us from exploring new perspectives which may be better suited

A level Psychology (3 decks)

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