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Chemistry Formulas and Key concepts > 4.2 > Flashcards

4.2 Flashcards

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1
Q

Describe the polarity of alcohols

A
  • The OH group is polar and forms hydrogen bonds with water molecules and other alcohols
  • So in small alcohols like ethanol the OH group forms hydrogen bonds with the water molecules which makes it soluble
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2
Q

Describe the boiling point of alcohols

A

The boiling point of an alcohol is high due to hydrogen bonding. Hydrogen bonding is a strong type of intermolecular forces found in all alcohols

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3
Q

How will the boiling point of alcohols change with increasing molecular size?

A

The boiling point will increase due to an increase in temporary dipoles (induced dipole forces)

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4
Q

Describe branching and its effect on boiling point for alcohols

A

Branching will lower boiling point as the induced dipole dipoles will coverless area. This will lower surface contact between the molecules, resulting in less energy being required to boil the alcohol

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5
Q

Compare boiling points between alcohols and alkenes

A

Boiling point will be much higher in alcohols dues to hydrogen bonding as they contain a polar OH group.

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6
Q

Compare solubility in water between alcohols and alkenes

A

Alcohols are soluble in water whereas alkenes aren’t. This is because the OH group is polar and forms hydrogen bonds with water molecules and other alcohols

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7
Q

Describe the volatility of alcohols

A

The OH group forms hydrogen bonds between alcohols which means that they have a relatively low volatility

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8
Q

Describe the trend in boiling point for straight chain alcohols

A

As chain length increases, boiling point increases. This is due to more energy being needed to overcome more temporary dipoles as well as hydrogen bondings

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9
Q

What are the 3 classifications of alcohols?

A

Primary
Secondary
Tertiary

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10
Q

What is meant by a primary alcohol?

A

A primary alcohol means the carbon the OH is on has one carbon attached (or 2 hydrogens attached)

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11
Q

What is meant by a secondary alcohol?

A

A secondary alcohol means the carbon the OH is on has two carbons attached to it (or has 1 hydrogen)

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12
Q

What is meant by a tertiary alcohol?

A

A tertiary alcohol means the carbon the OH is on has three carbons attached to it (or has no hydrogens)

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13
Q

Provide examples of secondary alcohols

A

Propan-2-ol
Butan-2-ol
Pentan-2-ol
Pentan-3-ol

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14
Q

Provide examples of tertiary alcohols

A

2-methylpropan-2-ol
2-methylbutan-2-ol
2-methylpentan-2-ol
3-methylpentan-3-ol

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15
Q

In the complete combustion of alcohols what 2 products are ALWAYS formed?

A

Water (H2O) and Carbon dioxide

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16
Q

In the complete combustion of alcohols what 2 products are ALWAYS formed?

A

Water (H2O) and Carbon dioxide

E.g. C2H5OH + 3O2 → 2CO2 + 3H2O

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17
Q

In the INCOMPLETE combustion of alcohols what 2 products are formed?

A

Either carbon monoxide (CO) or soot (C) and water (H2O)

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18
Q

What happens if you oxidise a primary alcohol under distillation?

A

It forms an aldehyde

Functional group - CHO

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19
Q

What happens if you oxidise an aldehyde?

A

It forms an carboxylic acid

Functional group -COOH

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20
Q

What happens if you oxidise if you a primary alcohol under reflux?

A

It forms an carboxylic acid

Functional group -COOH

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21
Q

What happens if you oxidise a secondary alcohol?

A

It forms a ketone

Functional group - CCOC

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22
Q

What happens if you oxidise a tertiary alcohol and why?

A

It won’t react as there are NO free protons to undergo the reaction mechanism

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23
Q

What is the oxidising agent when oxidising alcohols called?

A

Acidified Potassium dichromate

K2Cr2O7 / H2SO4

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24
Q

What colour is it? What colour does it change to when it has been reduced?

A

It is an ORANGE solution but turns GREEN when it has been reduced

NOTE: Bear in mind that oxidising agents get REDUCED

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25
Q

How can you represent acidified potassium dichromate?

A

[O]

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26
Q

What does acidified potassium dichromate get reduced to?

A

+6 to +3

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27
Q

In what situation will oxidation occur?

A

When the OH is attached to a carbon that has a hydrogen attached

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28
Q

Describe how primary alcohols oxidise to aldehydes

Provide a general equation

A

Primary alcohols oxidise to aldehydes and water if the oxidation is carried out under DISTILLATION

Primary alcohol + [O} + ( Under distillation) → Aldehyde + H2O

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29
Q

Describe how primary alcohols oxidise to carboxylic acids

Provide a general equation

A

Primary alcohols oxidise to carboxylic acid and water if the oxidation is carried out under REFLUX

Primary alcohol + [O} + ( Under REFLUX) → Carboxylic acid + H2O

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30
Q

Describe how secondary alcohols oxidise to ketone?

Provide a general equation

A

Secondary alcohols are EASILY oxidised to KETONES

Secondary alcohol + [O} → Ketone + H2O

NOTE: This process is also known as deydration

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31
Q

Describe a ketone

A
  • Functional - CCOC
  • The C=O group is NOT at the end of the chain
  • The C doesn’t have a H on it
  • It ends in in -one e.g. propanone
  • If the C=O could be in more than one position, then a number is needed
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32
Q

Describe a aldehyde

A
  • Functional group - CHO
  • The C=O is always on the end of the chain
  • They end in -al
  • Aldehydes don’t have a number to show the position of the functional group because they are always at the end of the chain
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33
Q

Describe the elimination of H20 to form an alkene from an alcohol

A

Name - Dehydration
Reagent - Conc. sulfuric acid (H2SO4) or conc.phosphoric acid (H3P04)
Conditions = Reflux (180 degrees celsius)
Equation = Alcohol + (Reagent) → Alkene +H2O

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34
Q

Describe the process of changing an alkene to a halogenoalkane

A

Name - Electrophilic addition
Conditions - Room temperature
Equation = Alkane + Halogen → Dihaloalkane

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35
Q

Describe the process of forming an ester

A

Name - Esterification
Reagents - Carboxylic acid + Strong acid catalyst e.g. conc H2SO4
Equation - Carboxylic acid + Alcohol → Ester + H2O

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36
Q

Describe the process of making an alcohol from glucose

A

Name - Fermentation
Reagent - Glucose (From the hydrolysis of starch)
Conditions - Yeast, warm but not higher than 37 degrees celsisus

37
Q

What is the functional group of a haloalkane?

A

C-X where X is a halogen (Br,Cl, I or F)

38
Q

Explain the boiling point of haloalkanes

A

Increases as the compound gets bigger.

39
Q

What is a nucleophile?

A

An electron pair donor

40
Q

Describe a nucleophile

A
  • Possess at least one LONE PAIR of electrons
  • Don’t have to possess a negative charge e.g. NH3 or H2O
  • They are attracted to the slightly positive carbon
41
Q

Provide some examples of nucleophiles

A

OH- (Hydroxide ion)
CN- (Cyanide ion)
NH3 (Ammonia)
H20 (Water)

42
Q

What is the process called that turns halogenoalkanes into alcohols?

A

Nucleophilic substitution

43
Q

Outline nucleophilic substitution

A

Reagent - Aqueous sodium hydroxide [NaOH(aq)}
Conditions - Reflux (heat) in aqueous solution
Product = Alcohol + NaX (where X is a halogen)

44
Q

Describe the nucleophilic substitution mechanism

A
  • The nucleophile uses its lone pair to provide the electrons from a NEW BOND
  • The halogen is displaced - (carbon can only make 4 bonds)
  • The result is substitution following an attack by a nucleophile
45
Q

Key Points of nucleophilic substitution

A
  • The nucleophile has a lone pair of electrons
  • The C-H bond is POLAR
  • A curly arrow is drawn from the lone pair to the slightly positive carbon atom
  • The polar C-H bond breaks
  • The 2nd “curly arrow” shows the shared pair of electrons moving from the C-H bond onto the halogen
  • A negatively charged halide ion is displaced
46
Q

What is the most important reaction in nucleophilic substitution?

A

The breaking of the C-X bond

Where X is a halogen

47
Q 
Which haloalkane bond is the weakest out of :
C - F
C - Br
C - Cl
C - I 
What does this mean?
A

The C - I bond is the weakest so it will react the fastest. It is the weakest as it is the has the biggest atomic radius in group 7. This will lead to more shells being filled. As more shells are being filled, shielding (repulsion of outer electrons by inner electrons) will increase and the nuclear attraction between the outermost electron and nucleus will increase. This will mean that less energy will be needed to break the C - I bond, making the weakest and the most reactive

48
Q 
Which haloalkane bond is the strongest out of :
C - F
C - Br
C - Cl
C - I 
What does this mean?
A

The C - F bond is the strongest so it will react the slowest. It is the strongest as it is the has the smallest atomic radius in group 7. This means it only has a few shells (2 to be exact). As it only has 2 shells, it means that the outermost electron is very close to the nucleus so the bond between the two is very strong. As the bond is very strong, a ton of energy will be required to break the bond meaning that it will react very slow.

49
Q

How can we determine the rate of hydrolysis?

A

By reacting haloalkanes with water in the presence of silver nitrate, AgNO3 and ethanol
When the halide ion is placed by the OH- ion, Ag X is formed.
The quicker the precipitate forms the faster the rate of hydrolysis

Where X is halogen

50
Q

What colour is the Chlorine (Cl-) precipitate?

A

White PPT

51
Q

What colour is the Bromine (Br-) precipitate?

A

Cream PPT

52
Q

What colour is the Iodine (I-) precipitate?

A

Yellow PPT

53
Q

When looking at the upper atmosphere what reactions must we know?

A

CFC’s

NO radical reaction

54
Q

Outline the reaction of CFC’s undergoing free radical substitution

A

Initiation - CF2CL2 + (UV) → CF2Cl• + Cl•

Propagation - O3 + Cl• → O2 + •ClO
•ClO + O → Cl• +O2

Overall - O3 + 0 → 2O2

55
Q

Use equations to show how a •NO radical can break down ozone (3 marks)

A

O3 + •NO → O2 + •NO2
•NO2 + O → •NO + O2

Overall - O3 + O2 → 2O2

56
Q

CFC’S

A
  • CFC’s have been blamed for damage to the environment by thinning the ozone layer
  • Ozone absorbs a lot of harmful UV radiation
  • However, it breaks down more easily in the presence of CFC’s

NOTE : The same is true for •NO

57
Q

Why are CFC’s still in use?

A
  • CFC’S are still very useful for certain things
  • They are non - flammable and non - toxic
  • They are used in refrigerators
  • These must be disposed of carefully to reduce atmospheric CFC levels
58
Q

What is the general formula for an alkane?

A

CnH2n+2

59
Q

What is the general formula for an alkene?

A

CnH2n

60
Q

What is the general formula for a haloalkane?

A

CnH2n+1X

61
Q

What is the general formula for an alcohol?

A

CnH2n+1OH

62
Q

What is Infrared Spectroscopy? (IR spec)

A

A technique used to identify unknown organic compounds

63
Q

How to does IR spec work?

A
  • It works by firing IR radiation at a compound.
  • Different bonds absorb different amounts and frequencies of IR radiation.
  • By seeing what frequencies are absorbed, the bonds in the compound can be identified.
  • This is used to distinguish between alcohols, aldehydes/ketones and carboxylic acids
    It is also used in breathalysers to detect alcohol levels.
64
Q

What does IR radiation do to covalent bonds?

A

Causes them to VIBRATE more and absorb energy

65
Q

What are the 3 bonds you must know for Infrared spec?

A

O-H
C-H
C=O

66
Q

In what organic compound is the O-H bond found in?

A

Alcohols

67
Q

Describe the absorbance of an alcohol

A

Strong and broad

68
Q

Wavenumber (cm^1) of where you would find an alcohol

A

3230 - 3550

69
Q

In what OTHER organic compound is the O-H bond in?

A

Carboxylic acid

70
Q

Describe the absorbance of a carboxylic acid

A

Medium and very broad

71
Q

Wavenumber (cm^1) of where you would find a carboxylic acid

A

2500-3500

72
Q

In what organic compound is the C=O bond found in?

A

Aldehydes, Ketones and Esters (carbonyls)

73
Q

Describe the absorbance of carbonyls

A

Strong and sharp

74
Q

Describe the absorbance of a n aldehyde

A

1720-1740

75
Q

Describe the absorbance of a ketone

A

1705-1725

76
Q

Describe the absorbance of a ester

A

1735-1750

77
Q

What does the x axis on an IR spectra represent?

A

Wavenumber

78
Q

What does the y axis on an IR spectra represent?

A

Absorbance

NOTE: The stronger the absorbance, he larger the peak

79
Q

What is meant by the fingerprint region?

A
  • Organic molecules have a lot of C-C and C-H bonds within their structure
  • All spectra will have peaks in the 1400 cm-1 to 800 cm-1 range
  • This is referred to as the “fingerprint” region (unique for each chemical)
  • This can be compared to a database to identify chemical
80
Q

When identifying a functional group, do you include peaks in the “fingerprint” region?

A

NO YOU DON’T!!! NEVER DO THIS

81
Q

Describe alcohols (talk about it’s shape and where you would find it etc)

A

Alcohols show a broad absorption between 3200 and 3600 cm^-1

This is due to the presence of the O-H bond

82
Q

Describe carboxylic acids (talk about it’s shape and where you would find it etc)

A
  • Carboxylic acids show a broad absorption between 3200 and 3600 cm^-1
  • This is due to the presence of the O-H bond
  • They also show a strong absorption around 1700 cm^-1
  • This is due to the presence of the C=O bond
83
Q

Describe carbonyl compounds (talk about it’s shape and where you would find it etc)

A
  • Carbonyl compounds (ketones, aldehydes and esters) show a sharp, strong absorption between 1700 and 1760 cm^-1
  • This is due to the presence of the C=O bond
84
Q

Discuss IR and it’s use in breathalysers

A

Water in the breath can interfere with the O-H bond absorbance (at 3340cm^-1) but the sharp trough due to a C-H bond (at 2950cm^-1) can be used by a computer to calculate the percentage of ethanol present

85
Q

Why do different compounds produce different IR spectra?

A

Different compounds contain different bonds, which absorb different wavelengths of IR

86
Q

What are 5 stages needed for mass spectroscopy?

A 
This works in several stages (VIADD)
Vaporisation
Ionisation
Acceleration
Deflection 
Detection
87
Q

What is mass spec used for?

A
  • Mass spectrometry can be used to work out the Mr of known compounds, or to identify unknown compounds in a sample.
  • Mass spec is also used to monitor pollution levels, to test athletes for banned substances, and even to identify elements on mars
88
Q

Identifying Unknown Compounds

A
  • The peak with the highest m/z value is the total mass of the compound.
  • The peaks with lower m/z values are fragments of the compound.
  • These can be very useful in working out what the compound is.
89
Q

Fragmentation

A 
Common fragments
CH3+ = 15
C2H5+  = 28
C3H7+ = 43
C6H5+ = 77
CO+ =  28

Chemistry Formulas and Key concepts (8 decks)

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