4 The Road to Independence, 1942-48 Flashcards
What was the Impact of the Second World War on Indian politics: threat of invasion?
February 1942: Singapore surrendered to Japanese after a week of fighting soon followed by fall of Malaya and Burma; monumental blow to Britain’s prestige in Asia –> popular feeling in India that British rulers were no longer invincible; British had been suppressing information –> leaked –> considerable public unrest
March 1942: Cabinet put together a new declaration on India which offered the possibility that moves might be made towards granting it dominion status
Amery and Linlithgow failed to grasp the broader theme - key problem was that the British claimed to be fighting a war in support of freedom and democracy yet India was under foreign occupation; Amery unable to see it was not the nature of British rule or degree of Indian participation in it that was the problem, but rather nationalism; As Gandhi said, India wanted to be free to make its own mistakes
What was The influence of the USA; the Atlantic Charter
Early 1942: Churchill is troubling position (unpopular government/blackouts/ration books/military defeats in Far East) + American pressure
NEWFOUNDLAND CONFERENCE, August 1941: Churchill and FDR agreed a statement of common war and peace aim (ATLANTIC CHARTER); contained clause supporting “sovereign rights and self-government” –> misunderstanding (FDR - applied universally vs Churchill - countries under occupation of enemies)
even supporters of FDR though his position on India was inconsistent and poorly informed; accepted wildly inaccurate statistics from Churchill happily (75% of Indian soldiers were Muslim and none wanted concessions made to Congress - in fact, less that 35% of Indian army were Muslim); Churchill fed him info that supported his stance e.g. extracts from Jinnah’s letters
What was The Cripps Mission?
combination of pressure from United States + weak home position + drastic military reversals in Far East –> Churchill agreed to dispatch political mission to India
CRIPPS MISSION, :discuss government’s proposed declaration with Indian leaders; he could offer India “full dominion states” at some point after end of hostilities; Stafford Cripps knew he was risking his reputation; (US newspapers enthusiastic); chose tactics of consultations, soundings, midnight meetings, qualified assurances and detailed negotiation with wide variety of players including more radical nationalists; Cripps negotiated way beyond his limit –> final offer to Congress included Indian-staffed administration with only home affairs and defence remaining in British hands (not authorized by London); Gandhi suggested Cripps was offering little more than a post-dated cheque on a failing bank
Linlithgow - disliked Cripps Mission and what it stood for; weary of American intervention (FDR’s representative in New Delhi) both he and Amery thought Cripps’ analysis of India’s dangers was alarmist and collapse of Mission was desirable –> weaken Congress’ position; angry with Cripp’s failure to consult him during negotiations and telegraphed his views direct to Churchill –> mission doomed as each move was preempted
What was The ‘Quit India Campaign’ and its repercussions?
Indian unrest grew; press censorship extended; Linlithgow launched a smear campaign against Congress that they were pro-Nazi for not supporting his declaration of war (despite his knowledge of their three separate resolution during 1942 reiterating sympathy for Allies)
GANDHI - claimed Britain incapable of defending India; free nation’s 1st step would be to negotiate with Japan –> almost all of Congress Working Committee disagreed with him; Nehru adamant that British troops would be need in the event of a Japanese attack on India
QUIT INDIA RESOLUTION, 8 August 1942: called for a mass campaign of peaceful non-cooperation; apparent that British would not voluntarily abandon India in wartime so Gandhi must have realised that a revolution was a probable result of successful mass disorder; resolution accepted despite Nehru/Azad/etc ‘s reservations; most of agitation concentrated in Bihar/United Provinces/Bengal/Bombay/Delhi/Rajputana
Linlithgow - made plans for wholesale arrest of Congress leadership; arrests made smoothly –> situation in Delhi became extremely serious (hartal by Hindu shopkeepers not most Muslim/ city’s income tax office and railway station branch were burned down + other buildings); police opened fire (killed 14) –> Resistance grew for 6 weeks country close to revolution/ authorities responded with public floggings/burned villages and collective fines; Linlithgow ordered machine-gunning of rioting crowds from the air in Patna, Bihar; arrests made in their thousands; several hundred killed within a month; 5, 000 detained without trial; SINCE AMRITSAR BRITISH GOVERNMENT HAD BEEN CAREFUL TO OPERATE WITHIN LAW –> DRACONIAN TACTICS
Jinnah - avoided agitation; stood aloof to movement –> exacerbated communal divide with Hindus claiming that Muslims were not true nationalists since they refused to join mass action;
by end of 1942: 60,000 arrested
Explain Wavell’s appointment as Viceroy
Wavell - Commander-in Chief in India; proved most significant and outspoken viceroy of the century; made substantial efforts to persuade provincial government and princely rulers to implement economic and agricultural development projects; travelled around India trying to boost morale; reinstated regular meetings of the eleven governors of the provinces of British India; (Linlithgow not one);
WAVELL’S TELEGRAM - December 1945 1st serious attempt to show what ML’s Pakistan might mean in practice;
What was the The Bengal Famine?
spiralled out of control; Wavell ordered increased military assistance in food distribution + sent urgent telegram to Amery demanding new Governor of Bengal; battle trying to buy more grain; Churchill followed advice of Professor Lindemann who claimed famine was a statistical invention; Wavell requested a million tons of grain in 1944 and got a 1/4;
Explain The failure of the Simla Conference 1945
FAILURE: JInnah refused to allow Muslims who were not members of ML to serve on a new Viceroy’s Council; obv Wavell could not accept this; Wavell tried making own list of nominees which Jinnah refused (1 Muslim from Punjab’s Union Party); confirmed rift between Congress and ML; Jinnah’s conduct inflated his credibility
What was the results of the Cripps Mission?
RESULTS - most of the British government disapproved of his mission; many nationlists saw him a Churchill’s decoy; Nehru and Congress President Azad saw Britain in weak position and that Cripps’ proposed solution relied on Viceroy’s cooperation which was unlikey; missed chance to strengthen their position as they failed to foresee way in which Muslim bargaining power would increase; increased chance of creation of Pakistan as Cripps stated in a press conference that “a rearrangement of boundaries as between the two unions, and exchange of populations to get the larger majority in each” was not impossible
When Congress turned down British proposals, Churchill sent FDR copy of Cripps’ letter outlining failure of negotiations –> FDR still unsatisfied (believed British unwillingness to concede right of self-government was root issue) –> FDR announced that American troops in India were there only to help the Chinese and to liberate Burma and not to uphold Britain’s Indian Empire (moral position undermined by reports of US soldiers - + British and Australian - were molesting/raping Indian women
US interest in India news-led blip that peaked in 1942
What were the causes of the Bengal Famine?
CAUSES: poor distribution + lack of imports; food shortages; Churchill restricted grain imports in order to save ships for war effort (extent to which man-made); panic buying caused communal tensions and genuine fear of Japanese invasion; crop yield in 1943 worth that century;
What was the results of the Bengal Famine?
DEATHS: malaria, cholera, pneumonia etc; annual death rate 1.9 million 1943; Congress accused accused ML of profiting financially from famine and Jinnah decreed League officials should not hold posts in Bengal government; est. 1-3 million died over 3 years of famine
What was the Simla Conference 1945?
SIMLA CONFERENCE: British began to turn their backs on Indian toadies who had loyally supported them during Quit India movement (power lay with Nehru/Gandhi/Jinnah); Congress Working Committee released from jail; conference began June 25 1945; delegates included Congress/ML/smaller regional political parties; Azad still Congress president;
Explain The Labour government’s Indian policy
Labour victory July 1945 - increased vigour of Indian nationalism; Pethick-Lawrence –> Sec of State; bias in favour of Congress; formed new India Committee;
policy - create a “constitution-making body” of unelected Indians to attempt to put together a politicized Viceroy’s Council and resurrect Cripps offer of 1942; held fresh elections to assemblies of 11 provinces of B India and central assemblies in New Delhi;
Wavell gained impression that Labour Gov were keen to hand over India to Congress asap
November - Nehru told Wavell he could not strike deal with ML as it had entirely unacceptable ideas; Wavell believed Congress backed mass popular unrest would be impossible to quell as police and army were becoming demoralized; Jinnah announced Pakistan was “a question of life and death for us”; + labour unrest/food shortages in S India/lack of coal etc.; not enough troops in India (1:10,000 Indian civilians); War Office decided no more British troops to be sent to India
What were the The impact of Indian elections?
CONGRESS - landslide victory; formed government in all provinces except Bengal and Sind (ML) and Punjab (Union-Congress-Panthic Sikh coalition); Congres provincial leaders back in positions of power before resignation from office in 1939-40; corresponding boost to status of Congress in New Delhi;
MUSLIM LEAGUE - only in Muslim minority areas such as United Provinces that Pakistan seemed popular; Bengal - seemed most Bengalis determined to stay united; Bengali Muslims felt best represented by League (almost 90% Muslim vote);
by 1946 - both Congress and League were losing grip over their followers since goondas of Bengal and Punjab had own agendas; Congress Working Committee was anxious for settlement for fear of younger, more revolutionary generation
What were the Failures of the Cabinet Mission?
March - Stafford Cripps, Freddie Pethick-Lawrence and First Lord of the Admiralty, “A.V.” Alexander; clear that Cripps in charge of mission; ill-equipped for task; P-L official leader but no experience in diplomatic negotiation; Cripps willing to pay almost any price to get agreement; much time spent talking to nonentities; Jinnah refused to give ground; Congress - best claim to representing India, however inhabitants of 561 Princely states had never voted + Muslims/depressed castes/regionalists/hard-line Hindus rejected their claim;
India’s 6 million Sikhs hampered by having no credible leader or spokesman in New Delhi in 1940s; #
End - Congress increased demands and Jinnah not conceded an acre of Pakistan; pushed parties in extreme positions;
PRIVATE DECISION - 2 feasible options for India;
Scheme A - loose federation of Hindu-majority, Muslim-majority and Princely States with communications/defence/foreign affairs conducted by central government; (Hindus and Muslims have equal representation at centre) + 3-tier system
Scheme B - emergency fall-back option; creation of Hindustan and Pakistan with treaties and alliances between them but no mutual centre;
MOVED TO SIMLA - face-to-face meetings; mutual hostility (Jinnah refused to shake hands with Azad); Nehru and Patel conducted serious negotiating for Congress; –> no prospect of agreement
MAY STATEMENT - by Cabinet Delegation; aim was create a constituent assembly of elected representatives from 11 provinces promoting a unitary state with a weak centre controlling foreign affairs/communications/defence; fairly even-handed; explicitly opposed creation of Pakistan; JUNE 6 ML ACCEPTED MAY STATEMENT WHICH SHOWED JINNAH WAS WILLING TO COMPROMISE FOR BETTER DEAL!!
CONGRESS - did not accept statement
COMPLICATION - question of “grouping” –> Intended to provide lure for ML; Congress chose to interpret meaning as initial membership of each group would be optional which would have enable Congress to break up two nascent autonomous “Pakistan’s” before they were even created; Cripps did not clarify the matter;
CABINET DELEGATION concentrated on interim government –> internal disputes in Congress over Muslim nominations; Gandhi insisted government would have to contain at least one Congress Muslim and vetoed Patel and Nehru; Jinnah demanded right to nominate all Muslim members;
JUNE PROPOSAL - asserted that if any party did not join a coalition government then Viceroy would still assemble one; Congress finally agreed (Cripps’ persuasion);
DELAY CAUSED BY INABILITY OF DIFFERENT INDIAN LEADERS TO AGREE ON TERMS OF HANDOVER OF POWER NO BRITISH INTRANSIGENCE OVER DECOLONISATION
What happened on the ‘Direct Action Day’?
Jinnah felt betrayed by Delegation over grouping and membership of interim government –> Public statement, June 27 that Congress only spoke for higher castes;
Muslim League rejected May Statement as Muslims wanted nothing less than a “fully Sovereign State of Pakistan” and called for a direct action day were Muslims should renounce titles conferred to them by government
- -> Great Calcutta Killings August 1946; 3 days; 75% of victims were Muslim; Governor made mistake in making August 16 public holiday (army confined to barracks and minimal preparations made for rioting); 6,000 deaths; HUMAN AND POLITICAL DISASTER FOR MUSLIM LEAGUE; damaged Jinnah’s reputation
- ->peaceful in other Muslim-majority provinces
