4 Decentralisation and autonomy: Implementation and impact Flashcards
Hanson (????) defines the decentralization of a system as the process whereby decision-making ______ for particular functions is shifted from a certain location to one that is less central or ‘______’ and, as you already know, decision-making is associated with _____.
Hanson (1998) defines the decentralization of a system as the process whereby decision-making authority for particular functions is shifted from a certain location to one that is less central or ‘lower’ and, as you already know, decision-making is associated with power.
Green (????) says decentralisation is devolution of power to any “lower” levels (regional, local, inst’n…) – devolution is permanent transfer of decision-making to lower level (while delegation is temporary)
Green (1999) says decentralisation is devolution of power to any “lower” levels (regional, local, inst’n…) – devolution is permanent transfer of decision-making to lower level (while delegation is temporary)
It has already been emphasised that educational decentralization is evident around the world, particularly in the West for example, in the USA, Canada and England and Wales. In respect to England and Wales, it is exemplified by the 1988 Education Reform Act (ERA). This Act introduced a national curriculum, standardised assessment, local management of schools and grant maintained status for schools. As a result of this single piece of legislation, aspects of policy, the curriculum and assessment were centralized while practice and management responsibility for human and physical resources were decentralized. Although the Conservative Government responsible for ERA promoted the legislation on the basis of autonomy, choice and diversity, in other words, concepts connected with decentralization, the Act did, in fact, centralize many significant powers to the Secretary of State for Education. With respect to ERA, Whitty (1990) takes a particular ideological view and argues that “the rhetoric of decentralization is a cover for centralization” (p.22) while other writers (for example, Thomas, 1993; Levačić, 1995) also comment on the polarisation of aspects of education policy and practice within the reforms introduced through this Act
It has already been emphasised that educational decentralization is evident around the world, particularly in the West for example, in the USA, Canada and England and Wales. In respect to England and Wales, it is exemplified by the 1988 Education Reform Act (ERA). This Act introduced a national curriculum, standardised assessment, local management of schools and grant maintained status for schools. As a result of this single piece of legislation, aspects of policy, the curriculum and assessment were centralized while practice and management responsibility for human and physical resources were decentralized. Although the Conservative Government responsible for ERA promoted the legislation on the basis of autonomy, choice and diversity, in other words, concepts connected with decentralization, the Act did, in fact, centralize many significant powers to the Secretary of State for Education. With respect to ERA, Whitty (1990) takes a particular ideological view and argues that “the rhetoric of decentralization is a cover for centralization” (p.22) while other writers (for example, Thomas, 1993; Levačić, 1995) also comment on the polarisation of aspects of education policy and practice within the reforms introduced through this Act
in recent times, it is decentralization that is and has been the main focus of interest. In many countries around the world it is promoted as ‘good ________’ (Davies et al, ????) and is a key strand of educational reform.
in recent times, it is decentralization that is and has been the main focus of interest. In many countries around the world it is promoted as ‘good governance’ (Davies et al, 2003, p.139) and is a key strand of educational reform.
approaches to the analysis of educational decentralization are either technical or political which means….
approaches to the analysis of educational decentralization are either technical or political.
…the technical approach focuses on cost-effectiveness and school improvement
…the political approaches to the analysis of decentralization, look mainly at tensions and negotiations between governments, large education bureaucracies and/or interest groups in situations where decentralization of power is part of the national democratisation process. They are less concerned with school improvement. Rhoten (2000)
HOWEVER Hanson (1998) argues that educational decentralization reforms “typically have their roots in the political arena”(p.3). He describes decentralization as an “almost natural outcome” (p.3) as nations make the transition from autocratic to democratic forms of government and attempt to establish citizen participation in government
Hanson also points out that there are many different but often related goals that drive decentralization initiatives. These include:
Hanson also points out that there are many different but often related goals that drive decentralization initiatives. These include:
increased economic development through institutional modernization, for example Venezuela in the late 1960s and 1970s (Hanson, 1976)
increased management efficiency, for example Venezuela in the 1990s (Cruz, 1992)
redistribution of financial responsibility, for example Argentina (primary education 1978 and secondary 1991) (Fernandez, Lamarra and Vitar, 1991)
increased democratization, for example Spain in the late 1970s, Columbia in the early 1990s
neutralization of competing centres of power, for example in Chile and Mexico (Cortina, 1995; McGinn and Street, 1986; Nunez et al, 1993)
improved quality of education (Winkler, 1993, p.66).
The motivation behind decentralization can be considered as twofold: reducing the distance between the government and the organisation in charge of implementation, usually the school; and shifting the ________ risks to the lower level (Karstanje, ????).
The motivation behind decentralization can be considered as twofold: reducing the distance between the government and the organisation in charge of implementation, usually the school; and shifting the financial risks to the lower level (Karstanje, 1999, p.29).
Levačić (????) provides an alternative to resources as a means of analysing levels of decision making. She refers to domains (areas) of decision-making which may vary from one school or system to another. She suggests five domains.
Levačić (2002) provides an alternative to resources as a means of analysing levels of decision making. She refers to domains (areas) of decision-making which may vary from one school or system to another. (Levačić, 1995) she suggests five domains: school organisation: structure, differentiation, decision-making processes, capacity class size curriculum (guidelines, content, hours, textbooks), teaching methods and assessment staff: regulations on qualifications, appointment and dismissal, in-service training, appraisal, pay and conditions of service, including methods of performance management financial and resource management: spending decisions; size of staffing establishment, premises, information systems, financial assets and liabilities; external relations: admissions policies, pupil recruitment,relationships with other organisations (for example, trade unions) She points out that within each domain some decisions can be assigned to schools and others to higher levels. The form of school autonomy and the governance structure of the school system depend on the different domains and the extent of delegation to schools within each domain.
leaders and managers close to the delivery of education are more able to make effective decisions about the service. Hence, decentralization is considered to improve ________. However, it is also clear that in order for the system to succeed, those exercising the decision-making power must be open to _______ and, to effective challenge and sanctions in order to ensure that the exercise of power is within the prescribed limits…accountability
leaders and managers close to the delivery of education are more able to make effective decisions about the service. Hence, decentralization is considered to improve efficiency. However, it is also clear that in order for the system to succeed, those exercising the decision-making power must be open to scrutiny and, to effective challenge and sanctions in order to ensure that the exercise of power is within the prescribed limits…accountability
Accountability: Kogan (????) describes as ‘a ______’ applied to ‘individual role holders’. Thus, the counterpart of greater freedom at institutional level is an increased need for accountability to show how such freedom is being used.
Accountability: Kogan (1986) describes as ‘a condition’ applied to ‘individual role holders’. Thus, the counterpart of greater freedom at institutional level is an increased need for accountability to show how such freedom is being used.
Reasons for accountability include:
Reasons for accountability include:
- the counterpart of greater freedom at institutional level is an increased need for accountability to show how such freedom is being used.
- Economic competitiveness – In recent times, nations have become increasingly concerned about their international competitiveness in business and commerce and the performance of the educational system is seen as a way to prepare students to become economically productive
- Financial stringency – Increasing demands on public expenditure in may countries has led to concern to obtain value for money for whatever is spent on the educational system
- Equity of opportunity – On the basis that all citizens in a democracy receive equal access to public services, there is increasing concern that certain groups either have not profited from their educational opportunities or have dropped out. These groups have particularly included the socially disadvantaged and ethnic minorities.
At the macro level, four dimensions of accountability can be identified:
At the macro level, four dimensions of accountability can be identified:
Political – in a system that is supported by public funds, the institution is accountable for the best use of those funds and the government has a right and even a duty to ensure that the institution is contributing fully to the economic development, social progress, cultural conservation, individual fulfilment and other goals which enjoy widespread support;
Market – the institution is accountable to its customers, partners and stakeholders and choice and efficiency are emphasised. The customer, partners and stakeholders are all ‘free’ to withdraw their custom or support if the institution does not provide what is required in a way that satisfies demand. So the market provides incentive for school improvement;
Professional – each institution: school, college, district, regional or central authority, is accountable for maintaining the highest possible standards of the educational service. This accountability is represented by the norms that are self-imposed by educational professionals and are embodied in professional codes of practice and sets of values;
Cultural – education can be considered as fostering new insights, knowledge and understanding and it can be a force for change in society. This means that an institution that has little regard for such responsibilities can not be considered responsive and hence not accountable. In this way, education’s ‘external utility is rooted in its internal validity, its private integrity’ (Scott, 1989, p.2).
Educational reforms around the world such as decentralization and increased autonomy at the level of the school or college have placed greater emphasis on the first two mechanisms for accountability listed above.
Accountability is an ______ part of management, both within an organisation and across the system and it is especially significant in the public sector.
Accountability is an intrinsic part of management, both within an organisation and across the system and it is especially significant in the public sector.
… decentralization is designed to bring decision-making _____ to the student and the learning environment of the classroom. However, decentralization brings with it the possibility of extreme _________– the possibility that local communities, including parents and educators, may not have the knowledge and resources to adequately protect the quality of education provided to their children. Just as centralization has failed as a full guarantee of the ______ of all, so may decentralization prove inadequate to the same task. (Stinette, ????)
… decentralization is designed to bring decision-making closer to the student and the learning environment of the classroom. However, decentralization brings with it the possibility of extreme inequalities – the possibility that local communities, including parents and educators, may not have the knowledge and resources to adequately protect the quality of education provided to their children. Just as centralization has failed as a full guarantee of the rights of all, so may decentralization prove inadequate to the same task. (Stinette, 1992)
Decentralization clearly does not come with the passing of laws or the signing of decrees. Like most types of reform, it is _____ rather than created. It happens slowly because the organisational culture (for example, ‘the way we’ve always done things around here’) must be transformed, new roles ______, leadership styles _____…, communication patterns reversed… Hanson (????)
Decentralization clearly does not come with the passing of laws or the signing of decrees. Like most types of reform, it is built rather than created. It happens slowly because the organisational culture (for example, ‘the way we’ve always done things around here’) must be transformed, new roles learned, leadership styles altered…, communication patterns reversed… Hanson (1998)
