3 Organisations: power, structure and culture Flashcards
(who, when) prefer to think of organisations as being viewed through alternative ‘frames’. They make use of metaphors to increase our understanding of the analysis, so that the four frames they identify: structural (factory), human resource (family), political (jungle-power) and symbolic (temple/theatre-culture) are each given an appropriate metaphor. These different ways of viewing an organisation are all important in the study of educational leadership and management.
Bolman & Deal (1997) prefer to think of organisations as being viewed through alternative ‘frames’. They make use of metaphors to increase our understanding of the analysis, so that the four frames they identify: structural (factory), human resource (family), political (jungle-power) and symbolic (temple/theatre-culture) are each given an appropriate metaphor. These different ways of viewing an organisation are all important in the study of educational leadership and management.
One useful differentiation of types of power is that of Hales who sees power as:
(when?)
One useful differentiation of types of power is that of Hales (1997) who sees power as:
physical power resources
economic power resources
knowledge power resources including administrative knowledge about how an institution works, or technical knowledge concerned with how tasks are performed
normative power resources, for example personal qualities, or the ‘aura of office’ Hales, 1997, p. 25
Quite a similar list differentiating sources of power is quoted by Hoyle
(????)
Quite a similar list differentiating sources of power is quoted by Hoyle
Structural: power as a property of a person’s office or structural position.
Personality: power as a function of personal characteristics, such as charisma or leadership qualities.
Expertise: power as a function of specialised knowledge or skill or access to information.
Opportunity: power as a function of the occupancy of roles which even though they may rank low in the hierarchy, provide the opportunity to exert power through the control of information, or key organisational tasks. Hoyle, 1986, p. 74
Power is overarching, but ________ relates to the legal or statutory right to exert power, while influence relates to the more informal power that individuals may have. In schools, for example, the headteacher or principal may exercise power with authority, while individual members of staff may exercise the more unofficial aspect of power which is _______.
Power is overarching, but authority relates to the legal or statutory right to exert power, while influence relates to the more informal power that individuals may have. In schools, for example, the headteacher or principal may exercise power with authority, while individual members of staff may exercise the more unofficial aspect of power which is influence
Bush (????) lists the major features of collegiality as follows:
Bush (2003) lists the major features of collegiality as follows:
- it tends to be normative, that is, thought to be the ‘best’ way of managing and advocated as such
- it is seen as particularly appropriate to organisations where staff are professionals (like teachers)
- a common set of values is assumed
- it may work best in small organisations, or else a system of democratic representation may be used
- decisions are reached by consensus.
The power of policy changes has led to a coercive teamwork in the school which illustrates elements of what Hargreaves (????) termed ‘contrived collegiality’.
The power of policy changes has led to a coercive teamwork in the school which illustrates elements of what Hargreaves (1997) termed ‘contrived collegiality’.
The main features of a formal/bureaucratic model (based on Bush (????) are:
The main features of a formal/bureaucratic model (based on Bush, 2003) are:
- a hierarchical authority structure with formal chains of command
- goals of the organisation are important, the assumption is of a rational technical process
- a division of labour with staff specialising, for example, in departments in a secondary school
- decisions are governed by rules and regulations
- neutral and impersonal relations between staff are a feature
- recruitment and progress are determined on merit.
According to Bush (????) in the micro-political models of management:
According to Bush (2003) in the micro-political models of management:
- There is a focus on the group rather than the organisation as a whole. For example in secondary schools, there may be conflict and a struggle for power between subject departments.
- There may be differences in values and aims between interest groups within the organisation.
- There is a stress on conflict in the organisation.
- There tend to be a variety of goals, linked to the interests of groups rather than agreement on goals for the organisation as a whole.
- Decisions are made through negotiation and bargaining.
- Power is the key, with decisions being made on the basis of who is holding power.
West (????) identifies how there may be formal groups or teams formed within a school, for example departmental teams or the senior management team. However, there may also be ______ groupings which cut across the more formal teams. These could be defined as ‘_____’ with their own norms and ways of behaving. You can see how such groups could be defined as __-______ within the dominant culture of the organisation. Such groups, formal and informal, sustain their own members giving support and encouragement and also providing them with a sense of power. However, the existence of groups can promote competition and conflict with potential hostility between groups.
These clashes can occur within cliques in the staff room, or between the powerful groups of academic departments in secondary schools referred to by Ball (2011) as ‘_______ politics’, where there is competition over access to resources. These clashes may be most vividly experienced in relation to bidding over finance.
West (1999) identifies how there may be formal groups or teams formed within a school, for example departmental teams or the senior management team. However, there may also be informal groupings which cut across the more formal teams. These could be defined as ‘cliques’ with their own norms and ways of behaving. You can see how such groups could be defined as sub-cultures within the dominant culture of the organisation. Such groups, formal and informal, sustain their own members giving support and encouragement and also providing them with a sense of power. However, the existence of groups can promote competition and conflict with potential hostility between groups.
These clashes can occur within cliques in the staff room, or between the powerful groups of academic departments in secondary schools referred to by Ball (2011) as ‘baronial politics’, where there is competition over access to resources. These clashes may be most vividly experienced in relation to bidding over finance.
West (????) suggests that leaders in schools might limit the harmful effects of micro-political behaviour by:
West (1999) suggests that leaders in schools might limit the harmful effects of micro-political behaviour by:
- emphasising overall effectiveness, rather than departmental excellence, and recognising/rewarding groups for their contribution to the whole, rather than their individual achievement
- engineering frequents interaction and communication between groups, providing opportunities for groups to collaborate and reinforcing/rewarding assistance provided between groups
- avoiding win–lose situations, by not placing groups in positions where they need to compete for resources or are rewarded according to ‘success’ – placing emphasis on pooling and sharing of resources to maximise commitment and involvement.
- rotating members between groups, to de-stabilise, to increase mutual understanding, to minimise the strength of individual–group identification.
???? differentiates the following cultures; for each it is possible to identify a typical structure:
Club culture where one central leader is in control. The structure identified here is a spider’s web, with the leader at the centre.
Role culture where there are set, logical roles for each person. The equivalent structure would be a set of boxes.
Task culture where the organisation responds flexibly to the demands of particular problems. The organisation is not hierarchical. The companion structure is a flexible net.
Person culture – here the organisation is set up to support a few talented individuals who operate with autonomy. The structure is seen as a cluster of stars.
(Handy and Aitken, 1990). Handy differentiates the following cultures; for each it is possible to identify a typical structure:
Club culture where one central leader is in control. The structure identified here is a spider’s web, with the leader at the centre.
Role culture where there are set, logical roles for each person. The equivalent structure would be a set of boxes.
Task culture where the organisation responds flexibly to the demands of particular problems. The organisation is not hierarchical. The companion structure is a flexible net.
Person culture – here the organisation is set up to support a few talented individuals who operate with autonomy. The structure is seen as a cluster of stars.
Organisational culture is the characteristic _____ and _______ of an organisation, demonstrated, for example in the norms and ______ that are generally held about how people should _____ each other, the nature of the working relationships that should be developed and attitudes to change. These norms are deep, taken-for-granted assumptions that are not always expressed, and are often known without being understood. Torrington and Weightman, ????
Organisational culture is the characteristic spirit and belief of an organisation, demonstrated, for example in the norms and values that are generally held about how people should treat each other, the nature of the working relationships that should be developed and attitudes to change. These norms are deep, taken-for-granted assumptions that are not always expressed, and are often known without being understood. Torrington and Weightman, 1993
Although organisational culture will be affected by the national or societal culture in which it operates, each organisation will have its own unique _____ most often captured in the much repeated phrase: ‘the way we do things around here’ (Bolman and Deal, ????);
Although organisational culture will be affected by the national or societal culture in which it operates, each organisation will have its own unique culture most often captured in the much repeated phrase: ‘the way we do things around here’ (Bolman and Deal, 1984);
O’Neill (????) identified four interdependent elements of organisational activities which contribute to the culture:
O’Neill (1994, p. 107) identified four interdependent elements of organisational activities which contribute to the culture:
- purpose – both the declared purpose and the interpretation of the purpose by people working in the school
- symbolism – the messages which pedagogy, management structure and styles and rituals convey
- networks – the ways in which people communicate, meet and work together
- integration – the extent to which areas and people are brought together and are able to share in a unified culture.
There is a two-way process, with culture being affected by the style and nature of _________, and leadership and management being impeded or supported by the prevailing ______.
There is a two-way process, with culture being affected by the style and nature of leadership, and leadership and management being impeded or supported by the prevailing culture
