4. CHEMISTRY & BIOCHEMISTRY 2 Flashcards
This module covers: • The structure and function of proteins. • The structure of genetic material, mutations, as well as the role of nutrition. • The activity and importance of enzymes, including enzymes found in food and their therapeutic applications. • The processes of energy production and the key enzymes and nutrient cofactors, as well as mitochondrial damage.
What are amino acids?
The building blocks for proteins
What do amino acids consist of?
Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen and Nitrogen
How many amino acids are required in the body?
20
How are peptide bonds formed?
Amino acids join together using dehydration synthesis (by removing water) to create ‘peptide bonds’
What is aspartame?
A harmful dipeptide which does not occur in nature and is a neurotoxin
Describe Glutathione?
Which foods optimise glutathione production?
A tripeptide containing amino acids L-cysteine, L-glutamate and glycine
Legumes, sunflower seeds and eggs
Are non-polar amino acids hydrophilic or hydrophobic?
Hydrophobic
Are polar amino acids hydrophilic or hydrophobic?
Hydrophilic
Name four functions of proteins?
*Structure of body tissues, e.g collagen
*Movement e.g Actin and myosin
*Fibres(in muscles)
*Carrier molecules(e.g haemoglobin)
*Storage molecules e.g ferriting(iron)
*Fluid balance in the blood(albumin
*Enzymes(for reactions in the body)
*Hormones e.g insulin
*Immune function(e.g. antibodies)
*Clotting mechanisms e.g. clotting factors
*Alternative energy source - much less efficient than carbohydrate or fat -so only used during dietary deficiency
*Cell membrane proteins e.g receptors
What is denaturation?
What can cause proteins to be denatured?
If a proteins 3D structure changes or ‘unfolds’ we say it has denatured. Denatured proteins no longer function correctly e.g. protein fibres in muscle cells.
Heat (e.g. cooking(i.e. egg whites)
Heavy metals e.g. lead and mercury(they can damage proteins such as hormones, antibodies and enzymes)
What are the largest molecules in the body?
And which are the most common ones?
Nucleic acids
Deoxyribonucleic acid(DNA) and ribonucleic acid(RNA)
What is DNA?
How long is a DNA molecule?
DNA stores genetic information and acts like a recipe book.
Every living cell contains at least one DNA molecule to carry genetic information from one generation to the next
2 m long
What is RNA?
Ribonucleic acid
It is used to copy specific sub-sections of DNA called ‘genes’
How many genes are there in the human genome?
What are the four nucleotide bases(amino acids) in DNA?
20,000-25000
Adenine(A) a protein
Cytosine©
Guanine(G)
Thymine(T)
What is a double helix?
These are the two strands which when wound together like a twisted ladder form DNA
Which base does adenine pair with?
Which base does guanine pair with?
Thymine
Cytosine
What is the structure of RNA?
A single strand of nucleotides which contain the sugar ‘ribose’
How does RNA work?
A molecule of mRNA(messenger RNA copies the recipe in DNA (a gene) this is known as transcription.
The mRNA then travels to a ribosome where it is ‘read’. The ribosome then produces the protein coded for e’g’ a hormone. This is called translation
What is the end section of DNA called?
Telomeres
What happens to telomeres as we age?
They shorten
What can accelerate the process of aging?
Stress, Poor nutrition, Poor sleep, chemical agents, lack of exercise and negative thoughts?
What is a mutation?
A mutation describes an abnormal change to the genetic sequence
Name key nutrients which can influence whether a gene is copied or not?
Vitamin A, Vitamin D, essential fatty acids and zinc
What are enzymes?
What do they do?
What do they require?
Biological catalysts made from protein
Speed up reactions
Cofactors for Activity
Some enzymes require co-factors for activity. These are usually minerals or vitamins Zinc and Selenium. Without these, the enzyme is inactive.
What is zinc and selenium required for?
Zinc is required for the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase breaks down alcohol as part of the alcohol detoxification process
Selenium is required for the antioxidant
enzyme ‘glutathione peroxidase’
A lack of co-factor can lead to a reduction in enzyme activity
What is selenium required for?
The antioxidant enzyme ‘glutathione peroxidase’
What can a lack of cofactor lead to?
A reduction in enzyme activity
In which conditions do amino acid side chains bind to H+?
In which conditions do side chains lose H+?
Acidic conditions
Alkaline conditions
Why does the body work so hard to control PH?
Enzymes can be denatured by conditions that are too acidic or too basic
Name the key digestive enzymes?
Salivary Amylase, Gastric Lipase, Pepsinogen- Pepsin, Pancreatic Amylase, Pancreatic Lipase and Pancreatic Proteases
To avoid taxing the enzyme production what should be avoided?
Constantly eating, overeating and drinking whilst eating dilutes the digestive juices containing enzymes.
Name two factors that lower digestive enzymes?
Prolonged stress and nutritional deficiencies.
What can you use to stimulate the production of digestive enzymes, which nerve do they stimulate and what they trigger the release of?
Herbal bitter can be used to stimulate the production of digestive enzymes. They should be taken 15-20min before meals.
Bitters are thought to work by stimulating the Vagus nerve and also trigger the release of cholecystokinin (CCK).
Name some bitter herbals?
Swedish bitters (gentian), barberry bark, Andrographis and dandelion.
Bitter green : watercress.
Name a couple of proteases - enzymes, that help to digest protein (from plants.)
Bromelain in pineapples and Papain in papayas.
Which two ways denature enzymes?
Heat and using microwave.
Name 4 foods that contain an abundance of enzymes.
Sprouts contain up to 100x more Enzymes than fruit and vegetables,
Kiwi - Actinidin
Avocado - Lipase
Garlic - alliinase.
What properties does Allicin have?
Allicin has antimicrobial, antioxidant, cardio protective and anticancer properties.
At above which temperature are enzymes destroyed?
What temperature is considered the upper raw food limit for some active enzymes to be present?
Above 40C.
46-48C.
Which micronutrients are present in raw food vs cooked food?
Vitamins, minerals, probiotics, antioxidants, reduce free radicals and the need for digestive enzymes.
Which plant compounds are more available when heated? Name two?
Lycopene and beta carotene
In which digestive disorder is better to avoid eating raw?
SIBO, eating raw can cause immediate bloating.
Which foods can disrupt the uptake of iodine in the thyroid gland? And how they can be inactivated?
Brassica (goitrogenic foods) (e.g. turnips, cabbage, radishes) disrupt the uptake of iodine in the thyroid gland.
However they are inactivated by the cooking process, so may or may not need to be cooked depending on the thyroid disorder.
Which conditions can be caused by eating excessive raw foods? What symptoms and signs they can cause?
Yin conditions may be caused by excessive raw foods. This can cause lethargy, anaemia and the feeling of being cold, through the lack of ‘warming foods’.
Which enzymes are involved in the creation of key inflammatory mediators and which inflammatory mediators are they?
Cyclooxygenase-1 and -2 (COX), and Lipoxygenase-5 (LOX) are enzymes involved in the creation of key inflammatory mediators called prostaglandins and leukotrienes.
Name 3 herbs that inhibit enzymes which create key inflammatory mediators.
Boswellia, curcumin and ginger help to reduce inflammation by inhibiting prostaglandins and leukotrienes.
What would be a good addition to turmeric for better absorption?
Black pepper and fats e.g. coconut oil enhance the absorption of a compound called curcumin.
How would you use ginger therapeutically to maximise its
anti-inflammatory benefits?
Ginger - for maximum medicinal effect use in powder form. Try mixing 1/4 tsp to some water.
Alternatively, grate into boiling water and drink once it has steeped for 10 minutes (grated and in hot water).
Also add to meals
Like Curcumin and Ginger, Boswellia inhibit enzyme Cyclooxygenase-1 and -2 (COX) and
Lipoxygenase-5 (LOX) enzymes to reduce inflammation.
How can you use Boswellia therapeutically?
Boswellia can be effective as a powder.
Or, supplement with pure boswellia
Or use frankincense topically.
What is the pathway from Membrane
phospholipids to prostaglandins and Leukotrienes?
Membrane phospholipids –> Arachidonic acid –>5-LOX –> Leukotrienes
Membrane phospholipids –> Arachidonic acid –> COX-1 or COX-2 –>prostaglandins
Describe how Antibiotics work?
Antibiotics (such as penicillin) work by inactivating an enzyme necessary for the connections of amino acids in bacterial cell walls (both pathogenic and healthy bacteria) which is important for their structure.
How do statins work?
Statins work by inhibiting HMG-CoA reductase - the enzyme liver uses to make cholesterol and CoQ10. This explains why statins also deplete CoQ10.
Describe how do enzyme therapies work?
Systematic enzyme therapy involves taking a large dose of proteolytic enzymes on an empty stomach so that some of the enzymes are able to reach the blood stream intact.
Name 3 commonly used enzymes in enzyme therapies?
Bromelain, Serrapeptase and pancreatic enzymes
Name 3 properties of bromelain?
Anti-inflammatory - reduces inflammatory mediators such as bradykinin.
Anti-cancer and Anti - clotting - acts on fibrinogen.
May also have positive effects on atherosclerotic plaques.
Name 5 effects of Serrapeptase on the body.
Anti-inflammatory - Thinning the fluids formed from injury
Facilitating fluid drainage.
Inhibiting the release of pain-mediating chemicals.
Enhances cardiovascular health by breaking down the protein by-product of blood coagulation called fibrin.
It can, therefore, help to dissolve blood clots and atherosclerotic plaques.