4. CHEMISTRY & BIOCHEMISTRY 2 Flashcards
This module covers: • The structure and function of proteins. • The structure of genetic material, mutations, as well as the role of nutrition. • The activity and importance of enzymes, including enzymes found in food and their therapeutic applications. • The processes of energy production and the key enzymes and nutrient cofactors, as well as mitochondrial damage.
What are amino acids?
The building blocks for proteins
What do amino acids consist of?
Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen and Nitrogen
How many amino acids are required in the body?
20
How are peptide bonds formed?
Amino acids join together using dehydration synthesis (by removing water) to create ‘peptide bonds’
Every amino acid has
a Carboxyl Group/ acid. (-COOH) and
an amino group (-NH3)
What does each amino acid have that determines its characteristics?
a SIDE CHAIN (labelled R )
PEPTIDES
Amino acids join together using DEHYDRATION Synthesis (by removing water) to create ‘peptide bonds’
What is aspartame?
A harmful example of a ‘dipeptide’ which does not occur in nature and is a neurotoxin. Its manufactured to be an artifical sweetener.
PEPTIDES
Describe the powerful antioxidant Glutathione?
Which foods optimise glutathione production?
A TRIPEPTIDE containing amino acids
L-cysteine,
L-glutamate and
glycine
Cysteine is the most commonly limiting production of G.
Have a good intake of cysteine from:-
Legumes, sunflower seeds and eggs (it’ll optimise G production)
Non-polar amino acids are ?
Hydrophobic
Tryptophan is hydrophobic (used to produce serotonin which stimulates gut motility and digestive juices).
Polar amino acids are?
Hydrophilic
When a protein folds up in a watery env, they like to be on outside of the protein structure, interacting with polar water molecules, include TYROSINE - used to create adrenaline and thyroxine.
It is the combination of P and Non-P AA that ultimately determine the 3D shape of the protein
Amino acids with ACIDIC side chains can RELEASE hydrogen ions - whether they do or not depends on the pH of surrounding fluid
Amino acids with BASIC side chains can BIND to hydrogen ions - whether they do or not depend on the pH of the surrounding fluid.
This means the pH of the fluid the protein is in will affect its 3D STRUCTURE and therefore its FUNCTION
Name four functions of proteins?
- Structure of body tissues, e.g collagen
- Movement e.g Actin and myosin fibres (in muscles)
- Carrier molecules (e.g haemoglobin)
- Storage molecules e.g ferritin (iron)
- Fluid balance in the blood (albumin
- Enzymes (for reactions in the body)
- Hormones e.g insulin
- Immune function e.g. antibodies
- Clotting mechanisms e.g. clotting factors
- Alternative energy source - much less efficient than carbohydrate or fat so only used during dietary deficiency
- Cell membrane proteins e.g. receptors
The 3D structure of a protein is key to its function - If it changes or unfolds, it is denatured. Denatured proteins no longer function correctly , think protein fibres in muscle cells.
How can proteins be denatured?
Heat , cooking egg whites and pH changes (not necessarily bad)
Heavy metals e.g. lead and mercury(they can damage proteins such as hormones, antibodies and enzymes)
Coriander and chlorella remove heavy metals from body
To digest proteins, we use enzymes to break peptide bonds between AA
Can be broken by Hydrolysis reaction - using water
Can be mechanically broken down in mouth increasing surface area for enzymes to work on.
Chemical digestion of proteins begins in the stomach where enzyme PEPSIN breaks down long protein chains.
PEPSIN is released by gastric chief cells (inactive form) as pepsinogen. When HCl is present, it converts it to pepsin.
Pepsin needs pH2 to function correctly so adequate HCl is critical for good protein digestion.
Protein rich CHYME enters small intestine, the hormone CCK is released which triggers the pancreas to release pancreatic juices. They contain ….
proteases called trypsin and chymotrypsin
these shorter protein chains are further broken down into tripeptides , dipeptides and single AA by pancreatic proteases and brush border enzymes.
AA and small peptides are then absorbed into the blood.
What are the largest molecules in the body?
And which are the most common ones?
Nucleic acids and are used to store genetic info
Deoxyribonucleic acid(DNA) and ribonucleic acid(RNA)
the building blocks of nucleic acids are nucleotides which consist of phosphate group, sugar and nitrogenous base
Functions of nucleic acids
DNA stores genetic info and acts like a recipe book
every cell contains 1 DNA molecule to carry from generation to the next.
Human DNA molecules are huge - 2m
DNA acts as template for protein synthesis, RNA is used to copy specific sub-sections of DNA called genes and translate it to proteins.
20,000-25000 genes in the human genome (complete set of DNA).
Nucleotides in DNA contain 5 carbon sugar ‘deoxyribose’
4possible nucleotide bases (AA)
adenine (A) - a purine
Cytosine (C)
Guanine (G) - a purine
Thymine (T)
purine rich foods shellfish, red meat, are metabolised to form uric acid, if in excess, crystallise in joints and cause gout.
What is RNA?
Ribonucleic acid
It is used to copy specific sub-sections of DNA called ‘genes’
DNA has 2 strands wound together called a double helix
2strands held together by hydrogen bonds between the base in middle of ladder, whilst sugar phosphate at the sides of ladder form COVALENT bonds. Hydrogen bonds are weaker , thats how DNA can unzip during protein synthesis.
Adenine pair with thymine
guanine pairs with cytosine
which is important as sequences of these pairs code for production of a certain protein like hormone , say insulin
RNA is single strand nucleotides which contain the sugar ribose.
DNA is double stranded structure and has the sugar DEOXYribose
a molecule of mRNA copies the recipe in DNA (a gene) known as transcription.
Travels to a ribosome where it is read. then coded for a hormone. Called TRANSLATION
Genetics
DNA is used as a manual for making all proteins in the body from muscle tissue to enzymes.
DNA is condensed to form chromosomes. end sections called TELOMERES
The length of telomeres shortens as cells and tissues age. Can accelerate by…
stress,
poor nutrition,
poor sleep,
chemical agents,
lack of exercise,
negative thoughts.
Gotu Kola reduces telomere shortening
so supports healthy ageing
A mutation is a change in DNA sequence
Since the DNA sequence gives code for making proteins, a mutation can change the sequence of AA in the protein.
This in turn causes protein to change shape affecting function
Sickle cell anaemia (change of code for haemoglobin proteins making RBC defective)
What is a mutation?
A mutation describes an abnormal change to the genetic sequence
Haemophilia - mutation of gene for
clotting factor 8 (haemophilia A) or
clotting factor 9 (haemophilia B)
In cancer, mutations (involved in regulating cell division) occur due to
radiation,
poor nutrition,
chronic inflammation,
meds, chronic stress,
carcinogenic chemicals.
Name key nutrients which can influence whether a gene is copied or not?
Vitamin A, Vitamin D, essential fatty acids and zinc
What are enzymes?
What do they do?
What do they require?
Biological catalysts made from protein
Speed up reactions
Cofactors for Activity
Some enzymes require co-factors for activity. These are usually minerals or vitamins Zinc and Selenium. Without these, the enzyme is inactive.
What is zinc and selenium required for?
Zinc is required for the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase breaks down alcohol as part of the alcohol detoxification process
Selenium is required for the antioxidant
enzyme ‘glutathione peroxidase’
A lack of co-factor can lead to a reduction in enzyme activity
What is selenium required for?
The antioxidant enzyme ‘glutathione peroxidase’
What can a lack of cofactor lead to?
A reduction in enzyme activity
In which conditions do amino acid side chains bind to H+?
In which conditions do side chains lose H+?
Acidic conditions
Alkaline conditions
Why does the body work so hard to control PH?
Enzymes can be denatured by conditions that are too acidic or too basic
Name the key digestive enzymes?
Salivary Amylase, Gastric Lipase, Pepsinogen- Pepsin, Pancreatic Amylase, Pancreatic Lipase and Pancreatic Proteases
To avoid taxing the enzyme production what should be avoided?
Constantly eating, overeating and drinking whilst eating dilutes the digestive juices containing enzymes.
Name two factors that lower digestive enzymes?
Prolonged stress and nutritional deficiencies.
What can you use to stimulate the production of digestive enzymes, which nerve do they stimulate and what they trigger the release of?
Herbal bitter can be used to stimulate the production of digestive enzymes. They should be taken 15-20min before meals.
Bitters are thought to work by stimulating the Vagus nerve and also trigger the release of cholecystokinin (CCK).
Name some bitter herbals?
Swedish bitters (gentian), barberry bark, Andrographis and dandelion.
Bitter green : watercress.
Name a couple of proteases - enzymes that help to digest protein from plants.
Bromelain in pineapples and Papain in papayas.
Which two ways denature enzymes.
Heat and using microwave.
Name 4 foods that contain an abundance of enzymes.
Sprouts contain up to 100x more Enzymes than fruit and vegetables,
Kiwi - Actinidin
Avocado - Lipase
Garlic - alliinase.
What properties does Allicin have?
Allicin has antimicrobial, antioxidant, cardio protective and anticancer properties.
At above which temperature are enzymes destroyed?
What temperature is considered the upper raw food limit for some active enzymes to be present?
Above 40C.
46-48C.
Which micronutrients are present in raw food vs cooked food?
Vitamins, minerals, probiotics, antioxidants, reduce free radicals and the need for digestive enzymes.
Which plant compounds are more available when heated? Name two?
Lycopene and beta carotene
In which digestive disorder is better to avoid eating raw?
SIBO, eating raw can cause immediate bloating.
Which foods can disrupt the uptake of iodine in the thyroid gland? And how they can be inactivated?
Brassica (goitrogenic foods) (e.g. turnips, cabbage, radishes) disrupt the uptake of iodine in the thyroid gland.
However they are inactivated by the cooking process, so may or may not need to be cooked depending on the thyroid disorder.
Which conditions can be caused by eating excessive raw foods? What symptoms and signs they can cause?
Yin conditions may be caused by excessive raw foods. This can cause lethargy, anaemia and the feeling of being cold, through the lack of ‘warming foods’.
Which enzymes are involved in the creation of key inflammatory mediators and which inflammatory mediators are they?
Cyclooxygenase-1 and -2 (COX), and Lipoxygenase-5 (LOX) are enzymes involved in the creation of key inflammatory mediators called prostaglandins and leukotrienes.
Name 3 herbs that inhibit enzymes which create key inflammatory mediators.
Boswellia, curcumin and ginger help to reduce inflammation by inhibiting prostaglandins and leukotrienes.
What would be a good addition to turmeric for better absorption?
Black pepper and fats e.g. coconut oil enhance the absorption of a compound called curcumin.
How would you use ginger therapeutically to maximise its
anti-inflammatorybenefits?
Ginger - for maximum medicinal effect use in powder form. Try mixing 1/4 tsp to some water.
Alternatively, grate into boiling water and drink once it has steeped for 10 minutes (grated and in hot water).
Also add to meals
Like Curcumin and Ginger, Boswellia inhibit enzyme Cyclooxygenase-1 and -2 (COX) and
Lipoxygenase-5 (LOX) enzymes to reduce inflammation.
How can you use it Boswellia therapeutically?
Boswellia can be effective as a powder.
Or, supplement with pure boswellia
Or use frankincense topically.
What is the pathway from Membrane
phospholipids to prostaglandins and Leukotrienes?
Membrane phospholipids –> Arachidonic acid –>5-LOX –> Leukotrienes
Membrane phospholipids –> Arachidonic acid –> COX-1 or COX-2 –>prostaglandins
Describe how Antibiotics work?
Antibiotics (such as penicillin) work by inactivating an enzyme necessary for the connections of amino acids in bacterial cell walls (both pathogenic and healthy bacteria) which is important for their structure.
How do statins work?
Statins work by inhibiting HMG-CoA reductase - the enzyme liver uses to make cholesterol and CoQ10. This explains why statins also deplete CoQ10.
Describe how do enzyme therapies work?
Systematic enzyme therapy involves taking a large dose of proteolytic enzymes on an empty stomach so that some of the enzymes are able to reach the blood stream intact.
Name 3 commonly used enzymes in enzyme therapies?
Bromelain, Serrapeptase and pancreatic enzymes
Name 3 properties of bromelain?
Anti-inflammatory - reduces inflammatory mediators such as bradykinin.
Anti-cancer and Anti - clotting - acts on fibrinogen.
May also have positive effects on atherosclerotic plaques.
Name 5 effects of Serrapeptase on the body.
Anti-inflammatory - Thinning the fluids formed from injury
Facilitating fluid drainage.
Inhibiting the release of pain-mediating chemicals.
Enhances cardiovascular health by breaking down the protein by-product of blood coagulation called fibrin.
It can, therefore, help to dissolve blood clots and atherosclerotic plaques.
Describe the properties and function of Serrapeptase?
Serrapeptase reduces pain and swelling without inhibiting prostaglandins and has no gastrointestinal adverse effects (like NSAIDs).
It alleviates pain by inhibiting the release of bradykinin from inflamed tissues.
Serrapeptase hydrolyses bradykinin and histamine, thereby reducing swelling improving microcirculation, aiding healing as well as the breakdown of sputum.
Name 4 therapeutic uses of Serrapeptase.
Use in Inflammatory-mediated pain (arthritis, spinal disc injuries),
scar tissue,
fibrocystic breast disease,
endometriosis,
autoimmunity,
excess mucus,
resistant bacterial infections (digest biofilm).
What is the function of the ATP ?
ATP is used to capture the energy released by reactions in the body such as ‘burning glucose’. ATP is how the body ‘traps’ energy from these reactions in a way that the body can use it.
ATP is a nucleotide with three phosphate groups. This is important because the bonds between the phosphate groups contain lots of energy.
Describe the relationship between ATP and magnesium?
ATP is always present as a magnesium -ATP complex. Magnesium binds to phosphate groups in ATP, holding the molecule in a slightly curved/strained shape that aids the loss of phosphate, facilitating energy release.
Without magnesium, ATP isn’t biologically active as it is difficult to release the energy from between the phosphate groups. Hence low energy is a symptom of magnesium insufficiency.
Note: Magnesium is a central component of chlorophyll (like how iron is at the core of haemoglobin). So increase intake of green vegetables.
Name 5 functions of ATP?
ATP is needed to :
- Capture the energy from oxidation reactions (i.e., the energy created when we burn fuel like glucose),
- Drives body reactions (e.g., building proteins)
- Fuel movement
- Transport substances across membranes (active transport).
- Cell division
Name 2 energy carriers?
What they are made of?
What do they transform into?
NAD & FAD.
NAD is made from vitamin B3 (niacin) or from amino acids tryptophan and aspartic acid.
FAD is made from vitamin B2 (riboflavin).
NAD becomes NADH when it traps energy. FAD becomes FADH2 when it traps energy.
Name the Energy carriers and what are they made of and describe the process how they work?
NAD is made from Vit B3 (niacin), or from the amino acid tryptophan and aspartic acid. When it traps energy NAD becomes NADH.
FAD is made from Vit B2 ( riboflavin), when it traps energy, FAD becomes FADH2.
NAD and FAD sweep in and steal electrons and a hydrogen from the glucose ( or fats). They trap the energy temporarily. Hence an adequate intake of B vitamins is essential for optimal energy release.
Describe the process of cellular respiration which involves 4 steps.
For each step name the essential nutrients required and how much energy is produced in each step.
What can block step 3?
What’s the total ATP produced?
Glucose can be oxidised (chemically burnt inside the body) to form ATP. This process is known as cellular respiration which involves:
- Glycolysis ( or anaerobic cellular respiration)- Its a 10 steps process in the cytosol.
2ATP (input) + Mg and B3 -> 2X Pyruvate
4 ATP + 2 NADH (trapped energy) - Formation of Acetyl CoA ( in mitochondria) x2 (due to 2 Pyruvate).
Oxygen needed, Lypoic Acid, B1, B3 & B5
2 NADH - Krebs cycle ( in mitochondria)
Oxygen needed, Mg, Mn, B1, B2, B3, Fe
6 NADH
2 FADH2
2ATP
This process can blocked by Al and Ag - Electron transport chain (in mitochondria).
Oxygen crucial
Complex I: Requires Fe and S
• Complex II: Requires CoQ10.
• Complex III: Requires Fe.
• Complex IV: Requires Cu2+
Total energy produced:
10 NADH x3 (ATP) =30
2 FADH x2 (ATP) = 4
4 ATP = 4
38 ATP
Describe the process of Glycolysis?
Glycolysis is the first stage of aerobic and anaerobic respiration and occurs in the cytosol. Through the 10 steps in glycolysis, glucose is transformed into two molecules, of a substance called pyruvate. Through this ‘splitting’ of glucose, some energy is released, but 2 ATP is used up.
Glucose contains 6 carbon atoms, whilst pyruvate contains 3 (so goes from a 6 carbon structure to 2x3 carbon structure). Energy is directly released and trapped as 4 ATP and 2 NADH.
There is, therefore, a net gain of 2 ATP and the 2 NADH (trapped energy).
Glycolysis requires magnesium and B vitamins.
Describe Anaerobic respiration in energy production?
Anaerobic respiration is the type of respiration through which cells can break down sugars to generate energy in the absence of oxygen. This is in contrast to the highly efficient process of aerobic respiration, which relies on oxygen toproduceenergy.
Anaerobic respiration would ideally be only used for short bursts of activity, but many individuals are chronically ‘hypoxic’ due to factors such as pollution, stress (poor breathing mechanics), a lack of exercise, smoking and obesity.
The anaerobic body accumulates lactic acid and increases an acidic environment.
Describe the energy production in the presence of oxygen?
It is a metabolic process by which organic molecules, such as glucose, are converted into energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in the presence of oxygen called aerobic respiration. It is highly efficient and allows cells to produce a large amount of ATP compared to anaerobicprocesses.
Describe strategies you can use to increase oxygen in energy production?
Try the following:
Exercise regularly ( 3-5x a week). Include outdoor exercise, Diaphragmatic breathing exercises.
Get outdoors in nature (plants produce oxygen).
Optimise dietary iron intake to support oxygen delivery to tissues around the body.
Consider a green smoothie, Improve the client’s desk posture (if they sit at work) and encourage more movement.
Describe Acetyl CoA formation?
Acetyl CoA is formed from the end product of glycolysis i.e. pyruvate.
The formation of acetyl CoA takes place with the help of the enzyme pyruvate dehydrogenase and coenzyme A.
During the breakdown of pyruvate which has 3 carbon atoms, co-factors B1 and Lipoic acid and Vit B5 are needed. Pyruvate loses one carbon and turns to Acetyl CoA.
Acetyl-CoA then enters the Kreb cycle with the help of oxygen, oxidising it for energy production.
Describe Coenzyme A?
Coenzyme A (CoA) is a coenzyme, well known for it’s role in the synthesis and oxidation of fatty acids, and the oxidation of pyruvate in the citric acid (Kreb) cycle.
Coenzyme A is naturally synthesised from pantothenate (vitamin B5), which is found in food such as meat, vegetables, cereal grains, legumes and eggs.
It is a vital carrier molecule to transport the acetyl group into the mitochondria so that it can participate in the Krebs Cycle.
Coenzyme A carries energy in a high-energy bond.
Remember that one glucose produces 2 pyruvate and hence 2 acetyl CoA.
Describe the Krebs cycle?
The Krebs cycle is simply a series of reactions, where acetyl CoA is modified by enzymes.
Through this process, energy is released or trapped. The Krebs cycle is also known as Citric Acid Cycle (refers to the first molecule that forms during the cycle’s reactions - citrate. Occurs in the mitochondrial matrix.
Acetyl CoA enters the Krebs cycle. For each glucose, enough energy is released to make: 2 ATP, 6 NADH, 2FADH.
Mn, Mg, B1, B2 ,B3 and Fe required
Which nutrients are needed in the Krebs cycle?
Magnesium, Iron, Manganese, B1, B2, B3
Describe the electron transport chain?
The final step in the process allows the energy trapped in the NADH and FADH2 to be turned into ATP with the help of four enzyme complexes which are embedded in the inner fold of the mitochondria.
Oxygen is very much essential for this step to occur. We should consider how well we are oxygenating the body.
A hypoxic environment will reduce their ability to produce ATP. Without oxygen, NAD and FAD cannot be recycled.
What can block activity of many enzymes?
Heavy metals such as aluminium and mercury.
Name the necessary co-factors to work in the 4 enzyme complexes which are embedded in the inner folds of mitochondria?
Complex I: Iron and Sulphur,
Complex II: CoQ10,
Complex III: Iron,
Compolex IV: Copper ions
Name two sulphur-rich foods?
leek and garlic
What’s Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10)?
Where is CoQ10 made?
Is a key component of the electron transport chain and is stored in the mitochondria. It’s also an important antioxidant.
Made in the liver
Describe CoQ10?
Co-enzyme Q10 is a key component of the electron transport chain and is stored in the mitochondria. The levels of CoQ10 are depleted by statins. This explains adverse effects such as muscle aching and fatigue.
CoQ10 has antioxidant properties and helps recycle other antioxidants such as vitamins C and E. It, therefore, reduces free radical damage, which is a common cause of mitochondrial damage.
In addition, CoQ10 slows down ageing changes and also inhibits arterial LDL oxidation.
Name some food sources of CoQ10?
Meat, poultry, fish (especially sardines and anchovies), nuts, sesame seeds, broccoli, cauliflower, oranges and strawberries.
Which enzyme makes CoQ10?
The same enzyme that makes cholesterol- HMG-CoA reductase
Describe 2 functions of CoQ10?
Important co-factor for our electron transport chain.
It’s a vital antioxidant.
Explain 2 adverse effects when taking statin?
Fatigue Muscle pain
What can cause mitochondrial damage?
Oxidative stress/ Free radicals Medical drugs and alcohol Environmental toxins like pollution, heavy metals BPA in plastics
What happens in mitochondrial damage?
The electron transport chain is compromised and also the generation of energy.
What chronic health conditions are associated with poor mitochondrial functioning?
Fibromyalgia
Type 2 Diabetes
Chronic fatigue syndrome
Pathogenesis of cancer
How do we protect mitochondrial function?
- Reduce toxic load (heavy metals, free radicals, chemicals ingested, inhaled, injected or absorbed through the skin).
- Increase nutrient co-factors for energy production (adequate supply of Magnesium, B Vits and trace minerals)
- Increase production of glutathione and glutathione peroxidase (cysteine & selenium)
- Support detoxification of the liver and elimination (bowel, kidneys, skin, lungs) processes.
What’s needed as a co-factor for glutathione peroxidase? And why?
Cysteine and selenium. Because it’s this antioxidant enzyme that helps to protect mitochondria from free radicals.
Which herbs can support mitochondrial function?
Ginseng, astragalus, rhodiola, ginko biloba, rosemary and curcumin (turmeric)
Which herbs can support detoxification and elimination within mitochondria?
Burdock, Dandelion
What are adaptogens?
Active ingredients found in plants and mushrooms that help the body adapt to stress
How many molecules of ATP do you get from 1 molecule of glucose during aerobic respiration?
38 molecules
How many molecules of ATP do you get from 1 molecule of glucose during anaerobic respiration?
2
What by-product do we build up during anaerobic respiration?
Lactic Acid
What’s present during Aerobic respiration?
Oxygen
What can the body use in the absence of carbohydrates for energy production?
Fats
Which of the following contains more energy per gram?
A- Fats
B- Carbohydrates
A- Fats, 9 calories per gram compared to 4 calories per gram
Why are fats used as a backup plan to produce energy for carbohydrates?
Because the process of burning fats for energy is more convoluted.
Explain the process of energy production from fats?
- Use lipases to get triglycerides out of our adipose tissue by splitting the stored fats into glycerol and fatty acids (lipolysis via hydrolysis) and putting them into the bloodstream.
- Fatty acids are transported to the liver, where the body uses a process called beta-oxidation to convert them into molecules of acetyl CoA. The process repeats until the entire fatty acid chain is broken down into acetyl CoA units. Beta-oxidation requires vitamin B2,
vitamin B3 and sulphur. - The Acetyl CoA can then enter the Krebs just like carbohydrates
What’s Beta-oxidation?
A series of chemical steps that allow a long carbon chain fat to be chopped up into acetyl CoA units that can go into the Krebs cycle.
What is easier for the body to burn?
Carbohydrates although fats burning is more efficient.
How do fats get into the mitochondria to be used for energy?
Fats must combine with co-enzyme A which comes from Vitamin B5 (Pantothenate Vit B5 and is the key precursor for the biosynthesis of coenzyme A (CoA)
How do we support someone who wants to burn fats for energy?
With Vit. B5
Magnesium to support the ATP process.
Carnitine-dependent enzyme to ferry the fatty acid into the mitochondria.
Which enzyme is required for the transport of fatty acids into mitochondria?
L-carnitine
Where does Beta-oxidation happen?
In the Mitochondria
What co-factors are needed to produce energy for beta-oxidation?
Vitamin B2, Vitamin B3 and sulphur
Which part of the body can’t use fatty acids for energy when carbohydrates are in short supply?
The Brain
Where does the brain get energy from?
Ketone bodies
How are ketone Bodies formed?
The mitochondria in the liver receive acetyl-CoA formed from beta-oxidation and instead of it being used to create energy through the Krebs Cycle, it is turned into acetone, acetoacetic acid and beta hydroxybutyrate. These can cross the blood brain barrier and be used as a source of energy.
What other body substances can be used to produce ketone bodies?
Proteins
What’s ketogenesis?
The process of producing ketones
What is ketosis?
The body state of forming ketones
When does Ketosis happen?
When somebody is on a high fat, low carbohydrate diet or when they are fasting. Generally, a mild state of ketosis is beneficial for the body.
What is ketoacidosis and how can someone enter into a ketoacidosis state?
Some of the ketone bodies like acetoacetic acid is an acid and when ketogenesis becomes excessive, somebody can enter into a state of ketoacidosis when there are health problems such as diabetes mellitus, or alcoholism causing the production of ketones reach dangerous levels from a a pH point of view.
At this point somebody’s breath will start to smell like nail polish remover and can become very dangerous to the body,
Which disease states has shown benefit from being in Ketosis?
- Ketogenic diet in children with refractory epilepsy. During ketosis there is an increase in the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA in the brain. Being in a state of ketosis can help to control seizures.
2. Enhances mitochondrial function and seems to help in neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s.
3. Normal cells can undergo ketosis and use ketones as energy but cancerous cells cannot. Further research is looking at how ketogenic diet could help patients with cancer.
What is ‘fasting’?
It is the abstinence from food for a specific period of time.
What happens in the body during fasting?
Fasting prevents the body from expending excess amounts of energy digesting food. It allows the body to focus its energy on other functions such as healing and regenerating.
Fasting encourages the body to enter a state of ketosis. Because fats yield more energy than carbohydrates it can be an effective way of increasing energy levels.
Name 4 different types of fasting?
- Intermittent fasting (2 days a week eating significantly less calories or eating in a reduced eating window - late breakfast and early dinner and a longer overnight period)
- Vegetable juice fasting
- juice fasting
- water fasting
Is it possible for the body to gain energy from protein?
Yes, but it is not a preferred method for the body
How does the body form energy from protein?
The carbon parts of the amino acids can be broken down to generate ATP or they can be used for gluconeogenesis - making glucose
What is gluconeogenesis?
It is the formation of new glucose from other non-carbohydrate sources. This process requires energy (ATP).
Key examples: Pyruvate Lactic acid (the heart does this) Glycerol Some amino acids (e.g. glutamine)
What needs to be removed in the degradation of amino acids when obtaining energy from proteins?
Nitrogen
What is the name of the chemical reaction used to remove nitrogen from the degradation of amino acids?
Deamination
What important co-factors are needed to remove nitrogen in the degradation of amino acids - Deamination?
Vitamin B3 and Vitamin B6
What do amino acids need to lose before entering the Krebs Cycle?
Amine NH2 group
What gets generated during deamination?
Ammonia
How does Ammonia get disposed of?
Through the urea cycle.
Which co-factor is required for gluconeogenesis?
Biotin
Where does an adult obtain their energy from in a fed state?
47% from carbohydrate 38% fat 15% protein
Where does an adult obtain their energy from in a fasting state?
Firstly glycogen, then fat where the body will enter into ketosis and should all fat be used, then available protein (this is not ideal as it will create muscle wasting).
What are the major energy sources for the body?
- Glucose from Carbohydrates (particularly starch)
- Fatty acids from fat metabolism Ketone bodies from fat or amino acid metabolism and created by the liver
- Amino Acids from protein (or body if starving)
What naturopathic principles should be considered in terms of energy production?
Naturopathic principles given that all body processes are driven by the Vital Force - Qi/ Prana, an illness or pathology can be described as a blockage or insufficiency of the vital force.
As naturopathic practitioners, we must try to establish why this vital force is obstructed.
What does ATP stand for and what is its role?
Adenosine Triphosphate. It is the energy currency of the body which is used to trap energy from burning glucose. It is used to spend the energy to fuel metabolic processes.
Which mineral exists in a complex with ATP?
Magnesium, and it is vital for releasing the energy from ATP
Which stage of cellular respiration occurs in the cytosol?
First stage - Glycolysis
Which 2 nutrients are important co-factors for glycolysis?
Magnesium because we have to put some ATP in and B3 because we’re going to use NAD as an energy carrier.
Where does the Krebs Cycle occur?
In the mitochondrial matrix
What molecule is needed to help ferry fatty acids into mitochondria?
Carnitine
Which 2 vitamins are needed for the removal of nitrogen from amino acids?
Vit B3 and B6
Where does gluconeogenesis take place in the body?
In the liver and to a lesser extent the kidneys during periods of fasting, starvation or intense exercise. This process requires energy ATP
What are the properties of CoQ10?
Antioxidant
Helps recycle other antioxidants such as Vit. C and E.
Reduces free radical damage a common cause of mitochondrial damage.
Slows downs ageing changes
Inhibits arterial LDL oxidation
What can compromise the synthesis of CoQ10?
Statins use
