4. CHEMISTRY & BIOCHEMISTRY 2 Flashcards
This module covers: • The structure and function of proteins. • The structure of genetic material, mutations, as well as the role of nutrition. • The activity and importance of enzymes, including enzymes found in food and their therapeutic applications. • The processes of energy production and the key enzymes and nutrient cofactors, as well as mitochondrial damage.
What are amino acids?
The building blocks for proteins
What do amino acids consist of?
Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen and Nitrogen
How many amino acids are required in the body?
20
How are peptide bonds formed?
Amino acids join together using dehydration synthesis (by removing water) to create ‘peptide bonds’
Every amino acid has
a Carboxyl Group/ acid. (-COOH) and
an amino group (-NH3)
What does each amino acid have that determines its characteristics?
a SIDE CHAIN (labelled R )
PEPTIDES
Amino acids join together using DEHYDRATION Synthesis (by removing water) to create ‘peptide bonds’
What is aspartame?
A harmful example of a ‘dipeptide’ which does not occur in nature and is a neurotoxin. Its manufactured to be an artifical sweetener.
PEPTIDES
Describe the powerful antioxidant Glutathione?
Which foods optimise glutathione production?
A TRIPEPTIDE containing amino acids
L-cysteine,
L-glutamate and
glycine
Cysteine is the most commonly limiting production of G.
Have a good intake of cysteine from:-
Legumes, sunflower seeds and eggs (it’ll optimise G production)
Non-polar amino acids are ?
Hydrophobic
Tryptophan is hydrophobic (used to produce serotonin which stimulates gut motility and digestive juices).
Polar amino acids are?
Hydrophilic
When a protein folds up in a watery env, they like to be on outside of the protein structure, interacting with polar water molecules, include TYROSINE - used to create adrenaline and thyroxine.
It is the combination of P and Non-P AA that ultimately determine the 3D shape of the protein
Amino acids with ACIDIC side chains can RELEASE hydrogen ions - whether they do or not depends on the pH of surrounding fluid
Amino acids with BASIC side chains can BIND to hydrogen ions - whether they do or not depend on the pH of the surrounding fluid.
This means the pH of the fluid the protein is in will affect its 3D STRUCTURE and therefore its FUNCTION
Name four functions of proteins?
- Structure of body tissues, e.g collagen
- Movement e.g Actin and myosin fibres (in muscles)
- Carrier molecules (e.g haemoglobin)
- Storage molecules e.g ferritin (iron)
- Fluid balance in the blood (albumin
- Enzymes (for reactions in the body)
- Hormones e.g insulin
- Immune function e.g. antibodies
- Clotting mechanisms e.g. clotting factors
- Alternative energy source - much less efficient than carbohydrate or fat so only used during dietary deficiency
- Cell membrane proteins e.g. receptors
The 3D structure of a protein is key to its function - If it changes or unfolds, it is denatured. Denatured proteins no longer function correctly , think protein fibres in muscle cells.
How can proteins be denatured?
Heat , cooking egg whites and pH changes (not necessarily bad)
Heavy metals e.g. lead and mercury(they can damage proteins such as hormones, antibodies and enzymes)
Coriander and chlorella remove heavy metals from body
To digest proteins, we use enzymes to break peptide bonds between AA
Can be broken by Hydrolysis reaction - using water
Can be mechanically broken down in mouth increasing surface area for enzymes to work on.
Chemical digestion of proteins begins in the stomach where enzyme PEPSIN breaks down long protein chains.
PEPSIN is released by gastric chief cells (inactive form) as pepsinogen. When HCl is present, it converts it to pepsin.
Pepsin needs pH2 to function correctly so adequate HCl is critical for good protein digestion.
Protein rich CHYME enters small intestine, the hormone CCK is released which triggers the pancreas to release pancreatic juices. They contain ….
proteases called trypsin and chymotrypsin
these shorter protein chains are further broken down into tripeptides , dipeptides and single AA by pancreatic proteases and brush border enzymes.
AA and small peptides are then absorbed into the blood.
What are the largest molecules in the body?
And which are the most common ones?
Nucleic acids and are used to store genetic info
Deoxyribonucleic acid(DNA) and ribonucleic acid(RNA)
the building blocks of nucleic acids are nucleotides which consist of phosphate group, sugar and nitrogenous base
Functions of nucleic acids
DNA stores genetic info and acts like a recipe book
every cell contains 1 DNA molecule to carry from generation to the next.
Human DNA molecules are huge - 2m
DNA acts as template for protein synthesis, RNA is used to copy specific sub-sections of DNA called genes and translate it to proteins.
20,000-25000 genes in the human genome (complete set of DNA).
Nucleotides in DNA contain 5 carbon sugar ‘deoxyribose’
4possible nucleotide bases (AA)
adenine (A) - a purine
Cytosine (C)
Guanine (G) - a purine
Thymine (T)
purine rich foods shellfish, red meat, are metabolised to form uric acid, if in excess, crystallise in joints and cause gout.
What is RNA?
Ribonucleic acid
It is used to copy specific sub-sections of DNA called ‘genes’
DNA has 2 strands wound together called a double helix
2strands held together by hydrogen bonds between the base in middle of ladder, whilst sugar phosphate at the sides of ladder form COVALENT bonds. Hydrogen bonds are weaker , thats how DNA can unzip during protein synthesis.
Adenine pair with thymine
guanine pairs with cytosine
which is important as sequences of these pairs code for production of a certain protein like hormone , say insulin
RNA is single strand nucleotides which contain the sugar ribose.
DNA is double stranded structure and has the sugar DEOXYribose
a molecule of mRNA copies the recipe in DNA (a gene) known as transcription.
Travels to a ribosome where it is read. then coded for a hormone. Called TRANSLATION
Genetics
DNA is used as a manual for making all proteins in the body from muscle tissue to enzymes.
DNA is condensed to form chromosomes. end sections called TELOMERES
The length of telomeres shortens as cells and tissues age. Can accelerate by…
stress,
poor nutrition,
poor sleep,
chemical agents,
lack of exercise,
negative thoughts.
Gotu Kola reduces telomere shortening
so supports healthy ageing
A mutation is a change in DNA sequence
Since the DNA sequence gives code for making proteins, a mutation can change the sequence of AA in the protein.
This in turn causes protein to change shape affecting function
Sickle cell anaemia (change of code for haemoglobin proteins making RBC defective)
What is a mutation?
A mutation describes an abnormal change to the genetic sequence
Haemophilia - mutation of gene for
clotting factor 8 (haemophilia A) or
clotting factor 9 (haemophilia B)
In cancer, mutations (involved in regulating cell division) occur due to
radiation,
poor nutrition,
chronic inflammation,
meds, chronic stress,
carcinogenic chemicals.
Name key nutrients which can influence whether a gene is copied or not?
Vitamin A, Vitamin D, essential fatty acids and zinc
What are enzymes?
What do they do?
What do they require?
Biological catalysts made from protein
Speed up reactions
Cofactors for Activity
Some enzymes require co-factors for activity. These are usually minerals or vitamins Zinc and Selenium. Without these, the enzyme is inactive.
What is zinc and selenium required for?
Zinc is required for the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase breaks down alcohol as part of the alcohol detoxification process
Selenium is required for the antioxidant
enzyme ‘glutathione peroxidase’
A lack of co-factor can lead to a reduction in enzyme activity
What is selenium required for?
The antioxidant enzyme ‘glutathione peroxidase’
What can a lack of cofactor lead to?
A reduction in enzyme activity
In which conditions do amino acid side chains bind to H+?
In which conditions do side chains lose H+?
Acidic conditions
Alkaline conditions
Why does the body work so hard to control PH?
Enzymes can be denatured by conditions that are too acidic or too basic
Name the key digestive enzymes?
Salivary Amylase, Gastric Lipase, Pepsinogen- Pepsin, Pancreatic Amylase, Pancreatic Lipase and Pancreatic Proteases
To avoid taxing the enzyme production what should be avoided?
Constantly eating, overeating and drinking whilst eating dilutes the digestive juices containing enzymes.
Name two factors that lower digestive enzymes?
Prolonged stress and nutritional deficiencies.
What can you use to stimulate the production of digestive enzymes, which nerve do they stimulate and what they trigger the release of?
Herbal bitter can be used to stimulate the production of digestive enzymes. They should be taken 15-20min before meals.
Bitters are thought to work by stimulating the Vagus nerve and also trigger the release of cholecystokinin (CCK).
Name some bitter herbals?
Swedish bitters (gentian), barberry bark, Andrographis and dandelion.
Bitter green : watercress.
Name a couple of proteases - enzymes that help to digest protein from plants.
Bromelain in pineapples and Papain in papayas.
Which two ways denature enzymes.
Heat and using microwave.
Name 4 foods that contain an abundance of enzymes.
Sprouts contain up to 100x more Enzymes than fruit and vegetables,
Kiwi - Actinidin
Avocado - Lipase
Garlic - alliinase.
What properties does Allicin have?
Allicin has antimicrobial, antioxidant, cardio protective and anticancer properties.
At above which temperature are enzymes destroyed?
What temperature is considered the upper raw food limit for some active enzymes to be present?
Above 40C.
46-48C.
Which micronutrients are present in raw food vs cooked food?
Vitamins, minerals, probiotics, antioxidants, reduce free radicals and the need for digestive enzymes.
Which plant compounds are more available when heated? Name two?
Lycopene and beta carotene
In which digestive disorder is better to avoid eating raw?
SIBO, eating raw can cause immediate bloating.
Which foods can disrupt the uptake of iodine in the thyroid gland? And how they can be inactivated?
Brassica (goitrogenic foods) (e.g. turnips, cabbage, radishes) disrupt the uptake of iodine in the thyroid gland.
However they are inactivated by the cooking process, so may or may not need to be cooked depending on the thyroid disorder.
Which conditions can be caused by eating excessive raw foods? What symptoms and signs they can cause?
Yin conditions may be caused by excessive raw foods. This can cause lethargy, anaemia and the feeling of being cold, through the lack of ‘warming foods’.
Which enzymes are involved in the creation of key inflammatory mediators and which inflammatory mediators are they?
Cyclooxygenase-1 and -2 (COX), and Lipoxygenase-5 (LOX) are enzymes involved in the creation of key inflammatory mediators called prostaglandins and leukotrienes.
Name 3 herbs that inhibit enzymes which create key inflammatory mediators.
Boswellia, curcumin and ginger help to reduce inflammation by inhibiting prostaglandins and leukotrienes.
What would be a good addition to turmeric for better absorption?
Black pepper and fats e.g. coconut oil enhance the absorption of a compound called curcumin.
How would you use ginger therapeutically to maximise its
anti-inflammatorybenefits?
Ginger - for maximum medicinal effect use in powder form. Try mixing 1/4 tsp to some water.
Alternatively, grate into boiling water and drink once it has steeped for 10 minutes (grated and in hot water).
Also add to meals
Like Curcumin and Ginger, Boswellia inhibit enzyme Cyclooxygenase-1 and -2 (COX) and
Lipoxygenase-5 (LOX) enzymes to reduce inflammation.
How can you use it Boswellia therapeutically?
Boswellia can be effective as a powder.
Or, supplement with pure boswellia
Or use frankincense topically.
What is the pathway from Membrane
phospholipids to prostaglandins and Leukotrienes?
Membrane phospholipids –> Arachidonic acid –>5-LOX –> Leukotrienes
Membrane phospholipids –> Arachidonic acid –> COX-1 or COX-2 –>prostaglandins
Describe how Antibiotics work?
Antibiotics (such as penicillin) work by inactivating an enzyme necessary for the connections of amino acids in bacterial cell walls (both pathogenic and healthy bacteria) which is important for their structure.
How do statins work?
Statins work by inhibiting HMG-CoA reductase - the enzyme liver uses to make cholesterol and CoQ10. This explains why statins also deplete CoQ10.
Describe how do enzyme therapies work?
Systematic enzyme therapy involves taking a large dose of proteolytic enzymes on an empty stomach so that some of the enzymes are able to reach the blood stream intact.
Name 3 commonly used enzymes in enzyme therapies?
Bromelain, Serrapeptase and pancreatic enzymes
