4: Approaches Key Terms Flashcards
Psychology
The scientific study of the human mind and its functions, especially those functions affecting behaviour in a given context
Science
a means of acquiring knowledge through systematic and objective investigation. the aim is to discover general laws.
Introspection
the first systematic experimental attempt to study the mind by breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images and sensations.
Behaviourist approach
a way of explaining behaviour in terms of what is observable and in terms of learning
Classical conditioning
learning by association. occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired together. the neutral stimulus eventually produces the same response that was first produced by the unlearned stimulus alone.
Operant conditioning
a form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences. possible consequences of behaviour include positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement and punishment
Reinforcement
a consequence of behaviour that increases the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated. can be positive or negative.
Social Learning Theory
a way of explaining behaviour that includes both direct and indirect reinforcement, combining learning theory with the role of cognitive factors
Imitation
Copying the behaviour of others
Identification
When an observer associates themselves with a role model and wants to be like the role model
Modelling
from the observers perspective, modelling is imitating the behaviour of a role model. From the role models perspective, modelling is the precise demonstration of a specific behaviour that may be imitated by an observer.
Vicarious reinforcement
reinforcement which is not directly experienced but occurs through observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour. This is a key factor in imitation.
Mediational processes
Cognitive factors (i.e. thinking) that influence learning and come between stimulus and response
cognitive approach
The term ‘cognitive’ has come to mean ‘mental processes’, so this approach is focused on how our mental processes (e.g. thoughts, perceptions, attention) affect behaviour
internal mental processes
‘Private’ operations of the mind such as perception and attention that mediate between stimulus and response
schema
A mental framework of beliefs and expectations that influence cognitive processing. They are developed from experience.
inference
The process whereby cognitive psychologists draw conclusions about the way mental processes operate on the basis of observed behaviour.
cognitive neuroscience
The scientific study of biological structures that underpin cognitive processes
biological approach
A perspective that emphasises the importance of physical processes in the body such as genetic inheritance and neural function
Genes
they make up chromosomes and consist of DNA which codes the physical features of an organism (such as eyecolour or height) and psychological features (such as mental disorders or intelligence). Genes are transmitted from parents to offspring, i.e. inherited.
biological structure
An arrangement or organisation of parts to form an organ, system or living thing
neurochemistry
Relating to chemicals in the brain that regulates psychological functioning
genotype
The particular set of genes that a person possesses
phenotype
The characteristics of an individual determined by both genes and the environment
Evolution
The changes in inherited characteristics in a biological population over successive generations
psychodynamic approach
A perspective that describes the different forces (dynamics), most of which are unconscious, that operate on the mind and direct human behaviour and experience
The unconscious
The part of the mind that we are unaware of but which continues to direct much of our behaviour
Id
entirely unconscious, the id is made up of selfish, aggressive instincts that demand immediate gratification
Ego
The “reality check“ that balances the conflicting demands of the id and the superego
superego
The moralistic part of our personality which represents the ideal self: how we ought to be
defence mechanisms
unconscious strategies that the ego uses to manage the conflict between the id and the super ego
Psychosexual stages
Five developmental stages that all children pass through. At each stage there is a different conflict, the outcome of which determines future development.
humanistic psychology approach
An approach to understanding behaviour that emphasises the importance of subjective experience and each person’s capacity for self-determination
free will
The notion that humans can make choices and are not determined by biological or external forces
self actualisation
The desire to grow psychologically and fulfil one’s full potential – becoming what you are capable of
hierarchy of needs
A five levelled hierarchical sequence in which basic needs (such as hunger) must be satisfied before higher psychological needs (such as a esteem and self actualisation) can be achieved
Self
The ideas and values that characterise ‘I’ and ‘me’ and includes perception and valuing of ‘what I am’ and ‘what I can do’
Congruence
The aim of Rogerian therapy; when the self concept and ideal self are seem to broadly accord or match
conditions of worth
when a parent place limits or boundaries on the love of their children; for instance, a parent saying to a child “I will only love you if… You study medicine“ or “if you split up with that boy“
