3RD LONG QUIZ Flashcards
It evolved from crude mixtures of alkaline and fatty material. It is natural or synthetic substance that has been used for centuries as a cleansing agent.
Soap
Synthetic cleaning agents that are designed to remove dirt
and stains from various surfaces, including clothing, dishes, and household surfaces.
DETERGENTS
Spherical clusters that are formed when detergent molecules
gather
Micelles
Dyes are dissolved inside the micelle when reacted with
detergent.
Solubilization
6 Raw Materials of Detergents
- SURFACTANTS
- STRAIGHT-CHAIN ALKYLBENZENE
- FATTY ACIDS AND ALCOHOLS
- SUDS REGULATORS
- BUILDERS
- ADDITIVES
Carry out the primary cleansing and lathering while
lowering surface tension.
SURFACTANTS
Cleaning Procedures of Surfactants:
● Initially, the cleaning procedure starts with wetting the dirt
and the surface of the clothes.
● Then it is followed by the removal of dirt from the surface.
● Lastly, the dirt is maintained in suspension. Surfactant
molecules form micelles, and when paired with the
mechanical agitation of the washing machine, it allows a
soap or detergent to remove solids, suspend them, and
prevent them from re-depositing on clothing.
phenyl-substituted n-alkanes of 11 to 14 carbon
atoms
STRAIGHT-CHAIN ALKYLBENZENES
mainly consumed as free acids and salts in
detergents and soaps
FATTY ACIDS AND ALCOHOLS
ALFOL PROCESS
● First step- production of the compound aluminum triethyl by the reaction of hydrogen, ethylene, and hydrogen metal under high pressure.
● This compound is then polymerized with ethylene to form
aluminum alkyl.
● The resulting product is then oxidized with air to form
aluminum alkoxides.
● Purification follows and the alkoxides are hydrolyzed using
23–26% sulfuric acid to yield primary, crude, straight-chain
alcohols.
● Lastly, they are fractionated, neutralized with caustic, and rinsed with water
perform an effective cleaning task in a washing
machine
SUDS REGULATORS
- can increase detergent power
- go beyond simple water softeners that trap calcium and magnesium ions that cause water to harden
BUILDERS
- Dishes, utensils, and washer parts made of metal are shielded from corrosion with corrosion inhibitors such sodium silicate.
- Fluorescent dyes are used as fabric brighteners because they can convert ultraviolet light to visible light, giving the appearance of brighter materials.
ADDITIVES
2 Manufacturing Process of Detergents
a.Sulfonation-sulfation
b.Neutralization
Sulfonation-sulfation Manufacturing Process of Detergents
- The alkylbenzene is continually introduced into the
sulfonator with the necessary amount of oleum. - Then, fatty tallow alcohol and more oleum are also
introduced into the sulfonated mixture. - All of these are pumped into the sulfater at a temperature
between 50 and 55 °C, producing a mixture of surfactants.
Neutralization Manufacturing Process of Detergents
- To keep the surfactant slurry fluid, the sulfonated-sulfated
product is neutralized with NaOH solution at a regulated
temperature. - This mixture is then pumped to an upper story, where it is
blasted against the hot air from the furnace in the
24-meter-high spray tower at high pressure. - By using an air lift to move the dried granules to an upper
story once more, they are cooled from 115°C and stabilized. - The grains are screened, scented, and packaged after being
separated in a cyclone.
Comprises the sodium or potassium salts of various fatty
acids, but chiefly of oleic, stearic, palmitic, lauric, and
myristic acid.
SOAPS
the basic chemical reaction in the soap
making process
SAPONIFICATION
2 Parts of the Structure of Soaps
● Long hydrocarbon tail -hydrophobic that binds with grease
and oil
● Smaller carboxylate head- hydrophilic which binds with water
TRUE OR FALSE:
Soaps form insoluble compounds when reacted with hard water ions. These compounds precipitate out and result in reduced foam and ineffective cleaning action of soaps.
TRUE
TRUE OR FALSE:
Soaps can be used in acidic solutions as the higher
concentration of hydrogen ions can convert the hydrophilic
carboxylate head into a fatty acid which decreases the
effectiveness of soap in acidic solutions.
FALSE
Soaps can’t be used in acidic solutions as the higher
concentration of hydrogen ions can convert the hydrophilic
carboxylate head into a fatty acid which decreases the
effectiveness of soap in acidic solutions.
TRUE OR FALSE:
Soaps can’t be used in hard water because calcium
and magnesium ions will react with soap molecules to form
a precipitate called scum. These are insoluble pieces of solid
that are easily formed and seen when a person uses soap
with hard water
TRUE
4 Raw Materials of Soaps
- OILS AND FATS
- ALKALI
- WATER
- ADDITIVES
4 CATEGORIES OF OILS AND FATS AS A RAW MATERIAL OF SOAPS
Tallow
Grease
Coconut Oil
Palm Oil
- principal fatty material in soapmaking
- contains mixed glycerides obtained from the solid fat of
cattle by steam rendering - solid fat is digested with steam; and tallow forms a layer
above the water, so that it can easily be removed
Tallow
- second most important raw material in soapmaking
- obtained from hogs and small domestic animals and is an
important source of glycerides of fatty acids
Grease
- contains large proportions of very desirable glycerides of
lauric and myristic acid - lauric acid is the most commonly used fatty compound in
soap with the best-expected properties as they provide high
lathering power and detergent.
Coconut Oil
- has stable foam capacity and strong, slow foaming
characteristics - has a very good bleaching effect and it is very smooth to
skin
Palm Oil
- Strongly basic solution (alkali) is needed for direct
saponification of neutral fats (triglycerols). - Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is the most commonly
used alkali for neutralizing fat due to its ability to
return air humidity. - Potassium hydroxide is a type of lye specifically
used to make liquid soap and baby soaps because
it is more environmentally friendly, water-soluble,
and gentle for babies.
ALKALI
The most commonly used alkali for neutralizing fat due to its ability to return air humidity.
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
A type of lye specifically
used to make liquid soap and baby soaps because
it is more environmentally friendly, water-soluble,
and gentle for babies.
Potassium hydroxide
- used to dissolve the alkali and facilitate the
saponification reaction - helps to control the consistency of the soap and
dissolve other additives
WATER
- used to enhance the color, texture, and scents of
soap
ADDITIVES
2 MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF SOAPS
KETTLE PROCESS
CONTINUOUS PROCESS
- Used by small soap manufacturing companies
mainly for special or limited production - Takes from four to eleven days to complete, and
the quality of each batch is inconsistent due to the
variety of oils used
KETTLE PROCESS
- 6 hrs lang mahuman ang process para makabuhat
ug isa ka batch na soap
CONTINUOUS PROCESS
CONTINUOUS PROCESS
I. SPLITTING
- splits natural fat into fatty acids and glycerin
- HYDROLYZER- vertical stainless-steel column with the
diameter of a 9 barrel
- Molten fat is pumped into one end of the column, while at
the other end water at high temperature (266°F or 130°C)
and pressure is introduced (maong masplit ang fat into fatty
acids ug glycerin)
II. MIXING
- purified fatty acids are next mixed with a precise amount of
alkali to form soap
- Other ingredients na pwede imix: abrasives and fragrance
III. COOLING AND FINISHING
- soap may be poured into molds and allowed to harden into a
large slab
IV. MILLING
- a milled bar lathers up better and has a finer consistency
than non-milled soap
- cooled soap is fed through several sets of heavy rollers
(mills), which crush and knead it.
- perfumes can best be incorporated at this time because their
volatile oils do not evaporate in the cold mixture
Advantages of Continuous Process as Compared to Kettle Process:
a. Improved soap color from a crude fat without extensive
pretreatment
b. Improved glycerin recovery
c. Flexibility control
d. Less space and labor
2 Main Classes of Soaps
Toilet soaps and industrial soaps
- also referred to as glycerol or glycerine, is a clear, nearly
colorless liquid having a sweet taste but no odor - combined form in all animal and vegetable fats and oils
- useful byproduct of soap manufacture
- used as a humectant (reduces the loss of in moisture) in
soap products which helps to ensure that the skin will
maintain its moisture in order to protect it from damage
caused by dryness
GLYCERIN
MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF GLYCERIN
I. RECOVERY FROM FATTY ACIDS
- produced as a coproduct of the direct hydrolysis
of triglycerides from natural fats and oils
- Water flows countercurrent to the fatty acid and
extracts glycerol from the fatty phase.
- Products of hydrolysis of oil using water alone: a
fatty acid layer and a sweet water layer
II. SYNTHETIC GLYCERIN
- made from propene, or propylene, a three-carbon
petrochemical compound with double bonds
The sweet water from the hydrolyzer column contains about
__% glycerol
12
STEPS FOR MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF SYNTHETIC GLYCERIN
- The propylene is chlorinated to produce allyl chloride.
- Treatment of the allyl chloride with the hypochlorous acid produces glycerin dichlorohydrin, which can be hydrolyzed by NaOH solution.
- The glycerin dichlorohydrin can be hydrolyzed directly to glycerin, but this takes two molecules of NaOH; hence a more economical procedure is to react with the cheaper calcium hydroxide, taking off the epichlorohydrin.
- The epichlorohydrin is easily hydrated to monochlorohydrin and then hydrated to glycerin with NaOH.
- Overall yield: 90% glycerin
3 KNOWN PHILIPPINE INDUSTRIES FOR SOAPS AND DETERGENTS
- Procter & Gamble Philippines Inc.
- Popular brands: Safeguard, Ariel, Tide, and Olay - Unilever Philippines Inc.
- Popular brands: Dove, Lifebuoy, Sunlight, and Surf - Colgate-Palmolive Philippines Inc.
- Popular brands: Palmolive soap and Fab detergent
- include sugar and starches
- organic compounds that contain carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen (ratio- 1:2:1)
Carbohydrates
3 Classifications of Carbohydrates:
- Monosaccharides - simple sugars
- Oligosaccharides - two or more monosaccharides
- Polysaccharides - many oligosaccharides
Processes sugar cane (warm climates) and sugar beet
(colder climates) to manufacture a type of edible sugar
SUGAR INDUSTRY
SUGAR CANE SCIENTIFIC NAME
(Saccharum officinarum)
- tall, thick, perennial grass that grows in warm or
hot climates - produces sugar in its leaves which is used as
energy or is stored in the stalks - yields about 2.6 million tons of sugar each year
SUGAR CANE (Saccharum officinarum)
SUGAR BEETS SCIENTIFIC NAME
(Beta vulgaris)
- type of beetroot with the highest sugar content
- 3.7 million tons of sugar are manufactured from
sugar beets
SUGAR BEETS (Beta vulgaris)
PRODUCTION OF SUGAR FROM SUGAR CANE/SUGAR BEETS
- HARVESTING
- WASHING AND INITIAL PREPARATION
- JUICE EXTRACTION
- PURIFICATION OF JUICE
- CRYSTALLIZATION
- CENTRIFUGATION
- DRYING AND PACKAGING
PRODUCTION OF SUGAR FROM SUGAR CANE/SUGAR BEETS
- typically harvested by machines in fields and are
often screened to remove dirt and rocks
HARVESTING
PRODUCTION OF SUGAR FROM SUGAR CANE/SUGAR BEETS
- Occur via belts that are sprayed with water or in
flues that are overflowing with water
- Rotating drums are often used as washing
stations. Water is sprayed into the drum and the
product rotates around inside the drum.
- Sugar cane is crushed with a swing-hammer or
heavily grooved crusher roller, while sugar beets
are cut with a slicing machine, which tears them
into strips smaller than French fries, called
cossettes.
WASHING AND INITIAL PREPARATION
PRODUCTION OF SUGAR FROM SUGAR CANE/SUGAR BEETS
- Milling is used to extract the juice from sugar
cane. Five mills compress the sugar cane fibers
and then the juice is separated from the bagasse
(can be used as fuel source)
- Initial juice na makuha: dark green in color, acidic,
and turbid
JUICE EXTRACTION
PRODUCTION OF SUGAR FROM SUGAR CANE/SUGAR BEETS
- The juice is introduced at the top of the tower and
sulfur dioxide vapor is introduced at the bottom.
- The sulfur dioxide rises up through the tower in a
process called sulfitation.
PURIFICATION OF JUICE
- further separate the soluble non-sugar materials
from the sugar juice - employs calcium carbonate or calcium sulfite to
aid in precipitation - The juice is heated to denature the protein
content and is then mixed with a slurry of calcium hydroxide
(milk of lime) - The clarified juice is then boiled in a series of
vacuum evaporators until it reaches a concentration of
50%–65% sugar.
Carbonation or alkalization
PRODUCTION OF SUGAR FROM SUGAR CANE/SUGAR BEETS
- A single-stage vacuum pan is used to evaporate
the syrup until it is saturated with sugar crystals,
which are formed through a process called
seeding.
- A milky solution of pure sucrose suspended in
alcohol and glycerin is the seed that is slowly
added to the syrup.
- The small grains of sugar present in the solution
serve as nuclei, helping to draw out the sugar in
solution and convert it into crystals.
- As the mixture is boiled in a vacuum pan, water
evaporates and sugar crystals continue to grow
into a paste called massecuite.
- MASSECUITE- a dense mixture of syrup and sugar
crystals obtained by evaporation
CRYSTALLIZATION
PRODUCTION OF SUGAR FROM SUGAR CANE/SUGAR BEETS
- To separate the massecuite into sugar crystals
and molasses, the massecuite is added to a
high-speed centrifuge (1000 to 2800 rpm)
CENTRIFUGATION
PRODUCTION OF SUGAR FROM SUGAR CANE/SUGAR BEETS
- The damp sugar crystals are dried in large, hot air
dryers, reaching a moisture content of as low as
0.02%.
- The dried crystals are then separated into different
sizes through vibrating screens and placed into
storage bins.
DRYING AND PACKAGING
Sugar cane is crushed with a swing-hammer or
heavily grooved crusher roller, while sugar beets
are cut with a slicing machine, which tears them
into strips smaller than French fries, called ___.
cossettes
a dense mixture of syrup and sugar
crystals obtained by evaporation
MASSECUITE
CANE SUGAR REFINING
- AFFINATION
- wherein the raw-sugar crystals are treated with a
heavy syrup (60 to 80° Brix) in order to remove the
film of adhering molasses
- syrup is removed by a centrifuge and the sugar
cake is sprayed with water - CLARIFICATION
- Carbonation and Filtration - DECOLORIZATION
- Two Methods: Granular Activated Carbon (GAC),
Ion-exchange Resin
- employs powdered carbon and Dioctadecyl
dimethylammonium chloride - EVAPORATION
- sugar syrup evaporated up to supersaturation - CRYSTALLIZATION
- The higher grades are sent to different vacuum
pans and concentrated under reduced pressure to
produce various types of sugars. - CENTRIFUGATION
- Crystals are separated from the syrup, washed,
and dropped to the wet sugar storage bin. - DRYING/COOLING
- The wet sugar is dried in a granulator. - SIEVING
- The dried crystals pass over a series of screeN
where they are graded according to size. - BAGGING/PACKING
- Various automatic packing and weighing
machines put up the sugar in barrels, sacks, and
boxes.
Amylum Common Name and Chemical Formula
Starch ((C6H10O5)n)
● also known as “amylum”
● a white, granular, organic chemical that is produced by all
green plants
● soft, white, tasteless powder that is insoluble in cold water
and other solvents
● polysaccharide consisting of glucose units joined by glycosidic bonds
Starch ((C6H10O5)n)
2 Major Components of Starch:
- Amylose (linear polymer)
- Amylopectin (branched form)
MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF STARCH
- RECEIVING
- CORN CLEANING
- STEEPING
- STEEPWATER EVAPORATION
- CORN GRINDING
- GERM/CYCLONE SEPARATORS
- GERM DRYING
- FINE GRINDING
- SCREEN WASHING
- FIBER DRYING
- CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATORS
- STARCH WASHING
- DRIER
- FURTHER PROCESSING
MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF STARCH:
- Corn or maize is collected from farmers or in the
market. Then transported to the unit in trucks in
gunny bags and offloaded in the receiving area or
in silos.
RECEIVING
MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF STARCH:
- Remove impurities such as sand, stone, etc. from
the raw material which is the dent corn.
CORN CLEANING
MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF STARCH:
- changes the structure and physiochemical
properties of corn endosperms, weakens
inter-linking strength of maize and conditions it for
subsequent milling and to prevent germination and
fermentation.
- corn is soaked in hot water (mixture containing
sulfur dioxide) 30 to 48 hours to begin breaking
the starch and protein bonds.
Sulfur dioxide - improves the fermentation by enhancing growth of favorable micro-organisms, preferably lactobacil
STEEPING
MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF STARCH:
- The steepwater containing 10% dry substance is
drained from the kernels and condensed on a
multi-stage evaporator.
STEEPWATER EVAPORATION
MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF STARCH:
- Steeped corn is transferred into the first stage disc
mill and is coarsely ground to loosen the germ and
husk.
- Disc mill is designed to crack the kernel separating
the starch without damaging the corn germ.
CORN GRINDING
MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF STARCH:
- The pasty mix obtained after grinding is pumped
to degerminators.
- This is a three-stage process where the slurry
containing soluble husk, gluten, and starch are
separated from the germ.
GERM/CYCLONE SEPARATORS
MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF STARCH:
- Wet germs are fed into the dryer shell through a
suitable screw feeder.
GERM DRYING
MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF STARCH:
- Removes the bound starch from the fiber
- After the germ separation, the mill flow is finely
ground in impact or attrition mills to release starch
and gluten from the endosperm cell walls.
FINE GRINDING
MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF STARCH:
- The husk is separated from the soluble starch and
gluten slurry by a countercurrent flow system.
- Then it is sent to either the drying section or used
as animal feed in wet form.
SCREEN WASHING
MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF STARCH:
- The washed fiber is transferred to the fiber
dewatering screw press.
FIBER DRYING
MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF STARCH:
- The slurry of starch and protein is passed through
a centrifugal concentrator to get the concentrated
slurry. This machine is also called a milk stream
thickener.
CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATORS
MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF STARCH:
- Separate starch from gluten needs to be washed
using hydrocyclones washing system in order to
remove impurities including protein and fiber.
STARCH WASHING
MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF STARCH:
- The wet product is introduced in the feed hopper in
the form of wet cake from a peeler centrifuge.
- Starch is dried to required moisture before
packing.
DRIER
MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF STARCH:
- The starch that was separated from the remaining
slurry in hydrocyclones can be converted to corn
syrup or made into several products such as corn
sweeteners, dextrose, fructose and other products
through a fermentation process.
FURTHER PROCESSING
● In cornstarch, amylose only makes up 27% of the
total, with amylopectin making up the remaining
73%.
● Linear chain of dextrose units
Amylose
● 10% to 30% of white potatoes are made of starch
White Potato Starch
● Formed from either broken white grains that were
rejected as food or “cargo rice”
● The rice is steeped in a diluted caustic soda
solution for 24 hours.
● The alcohol is removed, the rice is rinsed, new
alcohol is poured, and steeping is then continued
for an additional 36 to 48 hours.
● The softened grains are next mashed using a
caustic solution, and the mash is centrifuged.
Rice Starch
● This starch is obtained from the roots and tubers
of the manioc plant.
Cassava (Tapioca Starch)
● This is obtained from the pith of the sago palm,
and also from yams in the East Indies and Borneo.
● Pearl sago starch is made by drying the starch so
as to form a plastic dough, which is then forced
through sieves and dried in the air.
Sago Starch
5 UNIT OPERATIONS IN THE FERMENTING INDUSTRY
- STERILIZATION
- INOCULATION
- FERMENTATION
- HARVESTING
- FORMULATION
UNIT OPERATIONS IN THE FERMENTING INDUSTRY
● Ensures that the fermentation vessel and other
equipment used in the process are free of
contaminants
STERILIZATION
3 Categories for Sterlization
● Steam Sterilization
- Most common method
- It involves subjecting the equipment to
high-temperature steam for a set period of time.
● Chemical Sterilization
- usage of chemical agents to kill microorganisms
● Irradiation
- exposes the equipment to ionizing radiation, such
as gamma rays or X-rays, to kill microorganisms.
UNIT OPERATIONS IN THE FERMENTING INDUSTRY
● Involves the addition of microorganisms to a
fermentation vessel to initiate the fermentation
process
● Important to ensure that the fermentation process
starts efficiently and that the desired
microorganisms dominate the fermentation
culture.
INOCULATION
3 Categories for Inoculation
● Batch Inoculation - involves adding a concentrated
inoculum to the fermentation vessel at the beginning of the
fermentation process.
● Fed-Batch Inoculation - involves adding a small amount of
inoculum to the fermentation vessel at the beginning of the
fermentation process, followed by the gradual addition of
additional inoculum over time.
● Continuous Inoculation - involves adding a constant flow of
inoculum to the fermentation vessel over time.
- require a constant supply of microorganisms, such
as in wastewater treatment.
UNIT OPERATIONS IN THE FERMENTING INDUSTRY
● Involves the conversion of organic compounds,
such as sugars and carbohydrates, into other
products using microorganisms
● Involves the growth of microorganisms, typically
bacteria or yeast, in a suitable growth medium
under controlled conditions of temperature, pH,
and nutrient availability
● Microorganisms consume the organic compounds
present in the growth medium and convert them
into other products, such as ethanol, lactic acid, or
hydrogen gas
FERMENTATION
5 Types of Fermentation Method:
● Batch fermentation - the entire growth medium is added to
the fermenter at the beginning of the fermentation process,
and the microorganisms are allowed to grow until the
process is complete.
● Fed-batch fermentation - additional nutrients or growth
medium are added to the fermenter during the fermentation
process to support the growth of the microorganisms.
● Continuous fermentation - fresh growth medium is
continuously added to the fermenter, and the fermented
product is continuously removed
● Immobilization - physical or chemical attachment of
microorganisms or enzymes to a support matrix, which
allows for the repeated use of these immobilized cells or
enzymes in subsequent fermentation processes.
● Genetic engineering - involves the manipulation of the
genetic material of microorganisms to
UNIT OPERATIONS IN THE FERMENTING INDUSTRY
● Involves the separation and recovery of the desired
product from the fermentation broth.
HARVESTING
STEPS UNDER HARVESTING AS UNIT OPERATIONS IN THE FERMENTING INDUSTRY
● Clarification- removal of unwanted particles, such as
microorganisms, cell debris, and other impurities, from the
fermentation broth.
● Concentration- implies the removal of excess water from the
fermentation broth to increase the concentration of the
desired product
● Purification- involves the separation and purification of the
desired product from other components in the fermentation broth
UNIT OPERATIONS IN THE FERMENTING INDUSTRY
● Involves the development of a suitable composition or recipe
for the production of a specific product
FORMULATION
● A key product of fermentation industries
INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL
STEPS IN MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL:
- The feedstock is typically treated to convert complex
carbohydrates into simple sugars, which are then fermented
by yeast or bacteria to produce ethanol. - The ethanol is then purified through distillation to produce
anhydrous ethanol.
- sugarcane pulp where it was usually left to rot or
discarded
Bagasse
● Also known as anhydrous ethanol
● Highly purified form of ethanol that contains no water
● The manufacturing process for this is similar to
that of industrial alcohol, with the key difference being the additional steps required to remove any remaining water
from the ethanol
ABSOLUTE ALCOHOL
Additional steps required to manufacture absolute alcohol:
se steps may include:
1. Fermentation - fermentation of various feedstocks, such as
sugarcane, corn, or grains. Yeast is added to the feedstock to
convert the sugars into ethanol.
2. Distillation - ethanol is typically distilled to separate it from
the remaining water and other impurities
3. Dehydration - to remove any remaining water from the
ethanol, additional dehydration steps may be necessary
- azeotropic distillation, which involves adding a
second compound, such as benzene or toluene,
that forms an azeotrope with water.
4. Molecular sieves - porous materials that can selectively
adsorb water molecules
5. Membrane separation- involves passing the ethanol through
a membrane that selectively allows water molecules to pass
through, leaving behind a more concentrated ethanol
solution.
● Produced by fermenting sugars using yeast or bacteria
● Fermentation process converts the sugars into alcohol,
carbon dioxide, and other compounds that give the beverage
its characteristic flavor and aroma
Alcoholic Beverages
Key Applications of Fermentation for Beers, Wines and Liquors:
- Brewing Beer
● Type of yeast and other microorganisms used, as
well as the specific brewing process, can have a
significant impact on the flavor and aroma of the
beer - Producing Wine
● Involves the conversion of the sugar in the grapes
into alcohol and carbon dioxide, along with other
compounds that contribute to the flavor and
aroma of the wine - Distilling Spirits
● Spirits such as whiskey, vodka, and gin are
produced by distilling fermented grains or other
materials
● The fermentation process for spirits is similar to
that used for beer, but the resulting “wash” is then
distilled to increase the alcohol content and
remove impurities.
● Fermentation process forthis involves a combination
of yeast and bacteria, which convert the sugars in the tea
into organic acids, carbon dioxide, and other compounds
that give the beverage its characteristic flavor and
“fizz-iness”.
Kombucha
● Made by fermenting a mixture of ginger, sugar, and water
● However, the fermentation process is usually stopped before
significant alcohol is produced, resulting in a beverage with a
low alcohol content or no alcohol at all.
Ginger Beer
● Made by coagulating milk proteins using enzymes and
acid-producing bacteria.
● The coagulated milk is then separated into curds and whey,
which are further processed and aged to develop flavor and
texture.
Cheese
● Made by heating milk and inoculating it with specific strains
of bacteria, typically Lactobacillus bulgaricus and
Streptococcus Thermophilus.
● The bacteria convert lactose, the primary sugar in milk, into
lactic acid, which gives yogurt its characteristic tangy flavor
and thick texture.
Yogurt
● Made by fermenting milk using lactic acid bacteria. The
bacteria produce lactic acid, which gives buttermilk its
characteristic tangy flavor and thick texture
Buttermilk
● Made by fermenting cream using lactic acid bacteria.The
bacteria produce lactic acid, which gives sour cream its
characteristic tangy flavor and thick texture.
Sour cream
● Also known as n-butanol.
● A four-carbon alcohol that is commonly used as a solvent
● Produced through the fermentation of sugars by certain
strains of bacteria, such as Clostridium acetobutylicum.
BUTYL ALCOHOL
● A three-carbon ketone that is widely used as a solvent
● Produced through the fermentation of sugars by certain
strains of bacteria, such as Clostridium acetobutylicum,
which also produces butyl alcohol.
ACETONE
acetone-butanol-ethanol (ABE) fermentation process:
- Preparation of the fermentation media - Using a mixture of
carbon and nitrogen sources, along with other essential
nutrients required for bacterial growth. - Inoculation - The fermentation media is inoculated with the
selected strain of bacteria, such as Clostridium
acetobutylicum, which is capable of producing butanol and
acetone as byproducts. - Fermentation - Under controlled conditions of temperature,
pH, and oxygen levels, the bacteria consume the sugars
present in the media and produce butanol and acetone as
byproducts. - Separation and Purification - Butanol and acetone are
separated from the other byproducts using distillation or
other separation techniques. The purified butanol and acetone are then further processed and used for various
industrial applications.
Acetic Acid Chemical Formula
(CH3COOH)
Production Process for Acetic Acid:
oduction Process:
● Microorganisms to break down the substrate into acetic acid
- Large-scale manufacturing using microorganisms
like yeasts (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and
bacteria (Acetobacter aceti)
● Methanol carbonylation
● Catalytic oxidation of acetaldehyde
CITRIC ACID CHEMICAL FORMULA
(C6H8O7)
- manufactured by aerobic fermentation of crude sugar or
corn sugar by a special strain of Aspergillus niger
CITRIC ACID (C6H8O7)
LACTIC ACID CHEMICAL FORMULA
(C3H6O3)
- “2-hydroxypropionic acid”
- occurs naturally in plants, animals, and microorganisms
- produced by fermenting carbohydrates or through chemical
synthesis using coal, petroleum products, or natural gas
LACTIC ACID (C3H6O3)
method where hydrogen cyanide is added to liquid acetaldehyde in the presence of a base catalyst under high pressure.
Lactonitrile method
- L-glutamic acid can be obtained directly from the
fermentation of carbohydrates using Micrococcus
glutamicus or Brevibacterium divaricatum.
Monosodium Glutamate
- Microorganisms, such as Micrococcus glutamicus,
Brevibacterium flavum, Corynebacterium
acetoglutamicum, and Microbacterium
ammoniaphilum, can create lysine by breaking
down carbohydrates.
L-Lysine
Dihydroxyacetone Chemical Fomrula
(HOCH2COCH2OH)
- produced through the fermentation of glycerin by a
type of bacteria called sorbose bacterium
Dihydroxyacetone (HOCH2COCH2OH)
● Researchers have developed methods to immobilize
this on a solid support, which makes them more
resistant to changes in pH and temperature.
● There are various techniques to immobilize this,
adsorption on an ion-exchange resin is the oldest one.
● Glucose isomerase, a newer application, is used to convert
glucose to fructose.
● Amylase can be isolated from the fermentation mixture
through precipitation with isoamyl alcohol and
centrifugation.
Enzymes
- natural, cellular, composite material of botanical origin
- served as a principal source of fuel
- solid portion is over 95% organic
Wood
- natural, cellular, composite material of botanical origin
- served as a principal source of fuel
- solid portion is over 95% organic
Wood
Woos is mainly made up of 3 polymeric constituents, namely
cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin (with a rough proportion
of 2:1:1 respectively)
- approximately 45% of the dry weight in an ordered array of
high molecular weight glucose polymer chains.
Cellulose
- disordered array of several sugar polymers, which have no
economical use except as fuel
Hemicellulose
- an amorphous polyphenol polymer, which serves as a binder
for the cellulose fibers
Lignin
- varies from species to species but makes up to 5% to 30% of
the wood
Extract
2 CLASSIFICATIONS OF WOOD
- HARDWOODS
- SOFTWOODS
- come from deciduous trees
- temperate and tropical climates
HARDWOODS
- come from conifers (gymnosperm trees,
cone-bearing seed plants with vascular tissue)
SOFTWOODS
cull trees left growing in the cutover lands
Green Junk
PRODUCTS OF DISTILLATION OF HARDWOOD
● Charcoal
● Acetic Acid (preparation of various inorganic acetates and
white lead pigment)
3 Main Divisions of Naval Stores Industry:
- Gum Naval Stores
- Steam-distilled Naval Stores
- Sulfate Navals
- produced from crude gum (oleoresin) from living
longleaf and slash pine trees (5% of all rosin and
4% of all turpentine
Gum Naval Stores
- from resin-saturated stumps of the original
old-growth longleaf and slash pine forests of the
Southeast (42% of all rosin and 13% of all
turpentine).
Steam-distilled Naval Stores
- produced from formerly wasted sulfate, or kraft
liquors (54% of all rosin as tall oil rosin and 82% of
all turpentine) - Major products: turpentines, rosin, pine oils, rosin
oils, spirits, and pine-tar pitches and tars
Sulfate Navals
- made from certain pines
- but because of its strong odor it was replaced by volatile
petroleum fractions
Turpentine
- semi-transparent, yellow to black colored, solid form of resin
from pines and other conifers - produced by heating liquid resin to vaporize the volatile liquid
terpene components
Rosin
- by-product of the pulp and paper industry samples
- mixture of mainly acidic compounds in pine trees
Tall oils
- organic substance that supports the tissues of most plants
Lignins
MANUFACTURE OF NAVAL STORES
- Processing of gum
Steps:
● Only direct-fired copper stills were used to make gum.
● The rosin remained in the kettle and was taken out in a
molten, impure form at the conclusion of the run and filtered
to remove wood chips, pine needles, dirt, etc.
● The turpentine was distilled out with the water and separated
by gravity. - Steam and solvent process
● The cutover pine forests of the South offer the raw materials,
mostly stumps and other resinous waste wood.
- utilizes waste materials like wood, waste paper and
municipal waste which contain cellulose that can be
converted into sugar that can be fermented into ethanol
HYDROLYSIS OF WOOD
● In the sulfite process for the production of pulp, sugars are
produced by the hydrolysis of wood components that are
dissolved away during the production of paper fibers.
● First, the pulp is removed from the sulfite waste liquor and
conditioned for fermentation.
● After chilling the liquid to 30°C and adding lime (to adjust the
pH to 4.5) and urea fertilizer, it is pumped into fermentors
and fermented.
● The alcohol is extracted by distillation and refined
Wood Saccharification
3 CELLULOSE DERIVATIVES
Alpha-cellulose
Ethers
High-viscosity hydroxyethyl cellulose
- a highly refined form of cellulose used to produce
cellulose nitrate for plastics and explosives as well
as the majority of chemical derivatives
Alpha-cellulose
- ethyl cellulose, methyl cellulose, and
carboxymethyl cellulose
Ethers
- beneficial as a thickening and a protective colloid
in water-based coatings.
High-viscosity hydroxyethyl cellulose
Raw Material and Preparation for Pulp and Paper Industries
● Wood is the main source of cellulose for paper making aside
from cotton, linen rags, and waste.
● Softwood- mas prefer nila gamiton since the fibers are much
longer kaysa atung hardwood
● Ginatanggal nila ang bark sa tree kay lisod daw sya ibleach
and wala daw stay useful fibers. It will also darken the pulp,
require extra chemical usage, and bring contaminants such
as calcium, silica, and aluminum into the chemical recovery
system.
4 RAW MATERIAL PREPARATION FOR PULP MANUFACTURING
- Debarking
- CHIPPING
- CHIP SCREENING
- CHIP STORAGE
RAW MATERIAL PREPARATION FOR PULP MANUFACTURING
- ensure that the pulp is free of bark and dirt
Debarking
METHODS FOR DEBARKING AS RAW MATERIAL PREPARATION FOR PULP MANUFACTURING
● Cylindrical Debarking Drum
- abrades off the bark utilizing friction by tumbling
or rotating action in a moving mass of logs
- Types: tumbling debarking drum and parallel
debarking drum
● Hydraulic debarking
- a jet of high-pressure water (at about 10 MPa) is
directed tangentially to the log and strips away the
bark cleanly, breaks it up, and sluices it away
Additionally:
● Gentle Debarking
- involves debarking the logs in a relatively short
drum, and bark is removed afterward in a roller
section
RAW MATERIAL PREPARATION FOR PULP MANUFACTURING
● Logs are reduced to chip fragments needed for the
subsequent pulping operations.
● The chips should be small enough so that the heat
and chemicals can penetrate and diffuse
throughout the wood material in order for the chip
to be cooked in a homogenous way.
CHIPPING
RAW MATERIAL PREPARATION FOR PULP MANUFACTURING
● Chips are sorted according to the length that will
be fed to the digester.
● The chips are usually screened after chipping and
before transfer to the chip storage to remove the
oversize particles and fine.
CHIP SCREENING
2 TYPES OF SCREENS OF CHIPPING SCREENING
gyratory and disc screens
Screen consists of a vibrating screen plate, commonly having
round holes of certain size, either for oversize and fine.
gyratory screen
Screen is composed of discs, which are mounted
on parallel rotating shafts.
disc screen
RAW MATERIAL PREPARATION FOR PULP MANUFACTURING
● The most common storage volume measures 750,
000 m3.
● The chip storage is used to homogenize the flow
of the chips into the digester. It also used to
control the portion of various chip types being fed
to the digester.
CHIP STORAGE
● Wala pay chemicals ipang add diari
● Solely depends on the mechanical attrition to pulp
lignocellulosic wood material
MECHANICAL PULPING
The 5 main subdivisions of mechanical pulping
● Stone groundwood (SGW) pulping
● Refiner mechanical pulping (RMP)
● Thermomechanical pulping (TMP)
● Chemi Mechanical pulping (CMP)
● Pressure groundwood pulping (PGW)
The main subdivisions of mechanical pulping:
- by grinding short logs, called bolts, with
grindstones on the tangential and radial surfaces.
- Low density wood daw usually ginagamit
Stone groundwood (SGW) pulping
Newsprint requires ___ hp-day/ton, whereas book paper uses ___ hp-day/ton.
Newsprint requires 55 – 70 hp-day/ton, whereas book paper uses 60 – 85 hp-day/ton.
The main subdivisions of mechanical pulping:
- by disintegrating chips between revolving metal
discs or plates with raised bars at atmospheric
pressure
- Wood chips are fed into a pressurized pre-heater,
with a metering screw in the bottom which sets
the throughput.
Refiner mechanical pulping (RMP)
The main subdivisions of mechanical pulping:
- very similar to the RMP process, except that pulp
is made in special refiners that are pressurized
with steam in the first stage of refining.
Thermomechanical pulping (TMP)
2 Types of Chemi Mechanical pulping (CMP)
★ Chemi Thermomechanical Pulping
★ Semichemical Pulping
Type of Chemi Mechanical pulping (CMP):
- the chips are first pretreated with relatively small
amounts (about 2% on dry wood) of sodium sulfite
or sodium hydroxide below elevated temperature
and pressure before refining
Chemi Thermomechanical Pulping
Type of Chemi Mechanical pulping (CMP):
- Also called high-yield chemical pulping
- In the first step, a mild chemical treatment is used,
which is followed by moderate mechanical
refining.
❖ Neutral Sulfite Semichemical Pulping (NSSC)
❖ Kraft Green Liquor Semi Chemical Process
Semichemical Pulping
The main subdivisions of mechanical pulping:
- By pressurizing the grinder with steam at
temperatures of 105 – 125 °C, the wood is heated
and softened before the grinding process.
Pressure groundwood pulping (PGW)
The most employed process by any industry as it guarantees a high delignification process, making high quality paper when bleached. It involves sulfate or kraft pulping and sulfite
pulping.
Chemical pulping
★ A full chemical pulping method using NaOH and Na2S at pH
above 12, at 160 – 180°C corresponding to about 800 kPa
steam pressure, for 0.5 – 3 h to dissolve much of the lignin
of wood fibers.
Kraft Pulping (Sulfate Pulping)
STEPS FOR KRAFT PULPING:
- IMPREGNATION
- COOKING
- RECOVERY PROCESS
- BLOWING
- SCREENING
- WASHING
- BLEACHING
STEPS FOR KRAFT PULPING:
- Chips enter the continuous digester and are
pre-steamed at approximately 100 kPa, volatilizing
the turpentine and non condensable gases.
IMPREGNATION
STEPS FOR KRAFT PULPING:
- The cooking liquor (white liquor) penetrates into
the capillary structure of the chips and low
temperature chemical reactions with the wood
begin in pressurized vessels called digesters.
COOKING
- solid pulp after cooking
- represents about 50% (by weight) of the dry wood
chips and is collected and washed
Brown Stock
- combined liquids that contain lignin fragments,
carbohydrates (from the breakdown of hemicellulose), sodium
carbonate, sodium sulfate and other inorganic salts.
Black Liquor
STEPS FOR KRAFT PULPING:
- The excess black liquor contains about 15% solids
and is concentrated in a multiple effect evaporator.
- This multi-stage process frees rosin soap to rise to
the surface, which is then collected and processed
to tall oil.
- The remaining “weak” black liquor is further
evaporated until it is 65-80% solid, before finally
burned in a recovery boiler to recover the inorganic
chemicals for reuse in the pulping process.
RECOVERY PROCESS
molten salts
Smelt
- a process water
Weak white liquor
- resulting solution of sodium carbonate and
sodium sulfide
Green liquor
STEPS FOR KRAFT PULPING:
- Digester blowing occurs at the end of a cook when
the contents of a digester are cooled to about 100
°C and allowed to escape at an atmospheric
pressure.
BLOWING
STEPS FOR KRAFT PULPING:
- After pulping, the pulp (“accept”) is separated from
large shives, knots, dirt and other debris (“reject”)
by a combination of different types of sieves
(screens) and centrifugal cleaning.
SCREENING
STEPS FOR KRAFT PULPING:
- The solid pulp (“brown stock”) from the blowing
process goes to the washing stages, where the
used cooking liquors are separated from the
cellulose fibers.
WASHING
STEPS FOR KRAFT PULPING:
- After washing, the cellulose fibers (“brown stock”)
are further delignified by a variety of bleaching
stages.
- Bleaching decreases the mass of pulp produced
by about 5%, decreases the strength of the fibers
and adds to the cost of manufacture.
BLEACHING
★ The usual sulfite process consists of digestion of the wood
in an aqueous solution containing calcium bisulfate and an
excess of sulfur dioxide.
★ Sulfite pulp is a high-grade type of pulp and serves in the
manufacture of some of the finest papers, including bond. It
is easy to bleach, but the fibers are weak and the process
began to be replaced as soon as the ClO2 bleaching process
made kraft bleaching practical.
Sulfite Pulping
- The liquor is ordinarily made at the mill by burning
sulfur to form SO2 gas and dissolving this in water
to produce sulfurous acid (H2SO3). - The digester is filled with chips, and the acid
cooking liquor is pumped in at the bottom. - The digester is heated with direct steam. The
pressure in the digester varies from 480 to 1100
kPa, depending upon the construction of the plant.
The time and temperature range are from 6 to 12 h
and from 170 to 176 °C respectively.
Liquor Preparation of Sulfite Pulping
Calcium-based sulfite waste liquor does not permit
recovery and reuse of either the Ca or S content
- Magnesium and ammonium-based liquor can be
recovered, but the ammonia cannot be recovered.
- Sodium base can be recovered, but the recovery
process is complex.
- Only the magnesium based is conveniently and
simply handled, and this explains the reason why it
is preferred.
Waste Sulfite Liquor
It is brought about by a procedure similar to that
used for sulfate pulp, except that the dissolving agent is
NaOH/Na2CO3 and the make-up chemical is Na2CO3.
Soda Pulping
- The oldest material used for making paper, and the material
still used for finest grades, is cotton in the form of rags or
cotton linters.
Rag Pulping
2 General Processes for Manufacture of Paper
- Beating
- Beating the fibers makes the paper stronger, more uniform, more dense, more opaque, and less porous. - Refining