3RD LONG QUIZ Flashcards
It evolved from crude mixtures of alkaline and fatty material. It is natural or synthetic substance that has been used for centuries as a cleansing agent.
Soap
Synthetic cleaning agents that are designed to remove dirt
and stains from various surfaces, including clothing, dishes, and household surfaces.
DETERGENTS
Spherical clusters that are formed when detergent molecules
gather
Micelles
Dyes are dissolved inside the micelle when reacted with
detergent.
Solubilization
6 Raw Materials of Detergents
- SURFACTANTS
- STRAIGHT-CHAIN ALKYLBENZENE
- FATTY ACIDS AND ALCOHOLS
- SUDS REGULATORS
- BUILDERS
- ADDITIVES
Carry out the primary cleansing and lathering while
lowering surface tension.
SURFACTANTS
Cleaning Procedures of Surfactants:
● Initially, the cleaning procedure starts with wetting the dirt
and the surface of the clothes.
● Then it is followed by the removal of dirt from the surface.
● Lastly, the dirt is maintained in suspension. Surfactant
molecules form micelles, and when paired with the
mechanical agitation of the washing machine, it allows a
soap or detergent to remove solids, suspend them, and
prevent them from re-depositing on clothing.
phenyl-substituted n-alkanes of 11 to 14 carbon
atoms
STRAIGHT-CHAIN ALKYLBENZENES
mainly consumed as free acids and salts in
detergents and soaps
FATTY ACIDS AND ALCOHOLS
ALFOL PROCESS
● First step- production of the compound aluminum triethyl by the reaction of hydrogen, ethylene, and hydrogen metal under high pressure.
● This compound is then polymerized with ethylene to form
aluminum alkyl.
● The resulting product is then oxidized with air to form
aluminum alkoxides.
● Purification follows and the alkoxides are hydrolyzed using
23–26% sulfuric acid to yield primary, crude, straight-chain
alcohols.
● Lastly, they are fractionated, neutralized with caustic, and rinsed with water
perform an effective cleaning task in a washing
machine
SUDS REGULATORS
- can increase detergent power
- go beyond simple water softeners that trap calcium and magnesium ions that cause water to harden
BUILDERS
- Dishes, utensils, and washer parts made of metal are shielded from corrosion with corrosion inhibitors such sodium silicate.
- Fluorescent dyes are used as fabric brighteners because they can convert ultraviolet light to visible light, giving the appearance of brighter materials.
ADDITIVES
2 Manufacturing Process of Detergents
a.Sulfonation-sulfation
b.Neutralization
Sulfonation-sulfation Manufacturing Process of Detergents
- The alkylbenzene is continually introduced into the
sulfonator with the necessary amount of oleum. - Then, fatty tallow alcohol and more oleum are also
introduced into the sulfonated mixture. - All of these are pumped into the sulfater at a temperature
between 50 and 55 °C, producing a mixture of surfactants.
Neutralization Manufacturing Process of Detergents
- To keep the surfactant slurry fluid, the sulfonated-sulfated
product is neutralized with NaOH solution at a regulated
temperature. - This mixture is then pumped to an upper story, where it is
blasted against the hot air from the furnace in the
24-meter-high spray tower at high pressure. - By using an air lift to move the dried granules to an upper
story once more, they are cooled from 115°C and stabilized. - The grains are screened, scented, and packaged after being
separated in a cyclone.
Comprises the sodium or potassium salts of various fatty
acids, but chiefly of oleic, stearic, palmitic, lauric, and
myristic acid.
SOAPS
the basic chemical reaction in the soap
making process
SAPONIFICATION
2 Parts of the Structure of Soaps
● Long hydrocarbon tail -hydrophobic that binds with grease
and oil
● Smaller carboxylate head- hydrophilic which binds with water
TRUE OR FALSE:
Soaps form insoluble compounds when reacted with hard water ions. These compounds precipitate out and result in reduced foam and ineffective cleaning action of soaps.
TRUE
TRUE OR FALSE:
Soaps can be used in acidic solutions as the higher
concentration of hydrogen ions can convert the hydrophilic
carboxylate head into a fatty acid which decreases the
effectiveness of soap in acidic solutions.
FALSE
Soaps can’t be used in acidic solutions as the higher
concentration of hydrogen ions can convert the hydrophilic
carboxylate head into a fatty acid which decreases the
effectiveness of soap in acidic solutions.
TRUE OR FALSE:
Soaps can’t be used in hard water because calcium
and magnesium ions will react with soap molecules to form
a precipitate called scum. These are insoluble pieces of solid
that are easily formed and seen when a person uses soap
with hard water
TRUE
4 Raw Materials of Soaps
- OILS AND FATS
- ALKALI
- WATER
- ADDITIVES
4 CATEGORIES OF OILS AND FATS AS A RAW MATERIAL OF SOAPS
Tallow
Grease
Coconut Oil
Palm Oil
- principal fatty material in soapmaking
- contains mixed glycerides obtained from the solid fat of
cattle by steam rendering - solid fat is digested with steam; and tallow forms a layer
above the water, so that it can easily be removed
Tallow
- second most important raw material in soapmaking
- obtained from hogs and small domestic animals and is an
important source of glycerides of fatty acids
Grease
- contains large proportions of very desirable glycerides of
lauric and myristic acid - lauric acid is the most commonly used fatty compound in
soap with the best-expected properties as they provide high
lathering power and detergent.
Coconut Oil
- has stable foam capacity and strong, slow foaming
characteristics - has a very good bleaching effect and it is very smooth to
skin
Palm Oil
- Strongly basic solution (alkali) is needed for direct
saponification of neutral fats (triglycerols). - Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is the most commonly
used alkali for neutralizing fat due to its ability to
return air humidity. - Potassium hydroxide is a type of lye specifically
used to make liquid soap and baby soaps because
it is more environmentally friendly, water-soluble,
and gentle for babies.
ALKALI
The most commonly used alkali for neutralizing fat due to its ability to return air humidity.
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
A type of lye specifically
used to make liquid soap and baby soaps because
it is more environmentally friendly, water-soluble,
and gentle for babies.
Potassium hydroxide
- used to dissolve the alkali and facilitate the
saponification reaction - helps to control the consistency of the soap and
dissolve other additives
WATER
- used to enhance the color, texture, and scents of
soap
ADDITIVES
2 MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF SOAPS
KETTLE PROCESS
CONTINUOUS PROCESS
- Used by small soap manufacturing companies
mainly for special or limited production - Takes from four to eleven days to complete, and
the quality of each batch is inconsistent due to the
variety of oils used
KETTLE PROCESS
- 6 hrs lang mahuman ang process para makabuhat
ug isa ka batch na soap
CONTINUOUS PROCESS
CONTINUOUS PROCESS
I. SPLITTING
- splits natural fat into fatty acids and glycerin
- HYDROLYZER- vertical stainless-steel column with the
diameter of a 9 barrel
- Molten fat is pumped into one end of the column, while at
the other end water at high temperature (266°F or 130°C)
and pressure is introduced (maong masplit ang fat into fatty
acids ug glycerin)
II. MIXING
- purified fatty acids are next mixed with a precise amount of
alkali to form soap
- Other ingredients na pwede imix: abrasives and fragrance
III. COOLING AND FINISHING
- soap may be poured into molds and allowed to harden into a
large slab
IV. MILLING
- a milled bar lathers up better and has a finer consistency
than non-milled soap
- cooled soap is fed through several sets of heavy rollers
(mills), which crush and knead it.
- perfumes can best be incorporated at this time because their
volatile oils do not evaporate in the cold mixture
Advantages of Continuous Process as Compared to Kettle Process:
a. Improved soap color from a crude fat without extensive
pretreatment
b. Improved glycerin recovery
c. Flexibility control
d. Less space and labor
2 Main Classes of Soaps
Toilet soaps and industrial soaps
- also referred to as glycerol or glycerine, is a clear, nearly
colorless liquid having a sweet taste but no odor - combined form in all animal and vegetable fats and oils
- useful byproduct of soap manufacture
- used as a humectant (reduces the loss of in moisture) in
soap products which helps to ensure that the skin will
maintain its moisture in order to protect it from damage
caused by dryness
GLYCERIN
MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF GLYCERIN
I. RECOVERY FROM FATTY ACIDS
- produced as a coproduct of the direct hydrolysis
of triglycerides from natural fats and oils
- Water flows countercurrent to the fatty acid and
extracts glycerol from the fatty phase.
- Products of hydrolysis of oil using water alone: a
fatty acid layer and a sweet water layer
II. SYNTHETIC GLYCERIN
- made from propene, or propylene, a three-carbon
petrochemical compound with double bonds
The sweet water from the hydrolyzer column contains about
__% glycerol
12
STEPS FOR MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF SYNTHETIC GLYCERIN
- The propylene is chlorinated to produce allyl chloride.
- Treatment of the allyl chloride with the hypochlorous acid produces glycerin dichlorohydrin, which can be hydrolyzed by NaOH solution.
- The glycerin dichlorohydrin can be hydrolyzed directly to glycerin, but this takes two molecules of NaOH; hence a more economical procedure is to react with the cheaper calcium hydroxide, taking off the epichlorohydrin.
- The epichlorohydrin is easily hydrated to monochlorohydrin and then hydrated to glycerin with NaOH.
- Overall yield: 90% glycerin
3 KNOWN PHILIPPINE INDUSTRIES FOR SOAPS AND DETERGENTS
- Procter & Gamble Philippines Inc.
- Popular brands: Safeguard, Ariel, Tide, and Olay - Unilever Philippines Inc.
- Popular brands: Dove, Lifebuoy, Sunlight, and Surf - Colgate-Palmolive Philippines Inc.
- Popular brands: Palmolive soap and Fab detergent
- include sugar and starches
- organic compounds that contain carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen (ratio- 1:2:1)
Carbohydrates
3 Classifications of Carbohydrates:
- Monosaccharides - simple sugars
- Oligosaccharides - two or more monosaccharides
- Polysaccharides - many oligosaccharides
Processes sugar cane (warm climates) and sugar beet
(colder climates) to manufacture a type of edible sugar
SUGAR INDUSTRY
SUGAR CANE SCIENTIFIC NAME
(Saccharum officinarum)
- tall, thick, perennial grass that grows in warm or
hot climates - produces sugar in its leaves which is used as
energy or is stored in the stalks - yields about 2.6 million tons of sugar each year
SUGAR CANE (Saccharum officinarum)
SUGAR BEETS SCIENTIFIC NAME
(Beta vulgaris)
- type of beetroot with the highest sugar content
- 3.7 million tons of sugar are manufactured from
sugar beets
SUGAR BEETS (Beta vulgaris)
PRODUCTION OF SUGAR FROM SUGAR CANE/SUGAR BEETS
- HARVESTING
- WASHING AND INITIAL PREPARATION
- JUICE EXTRACTION
- PURIFICATION OF JUICE
- CRYSTALLIZATION
- CENTRIFUGATION
- DRYING AND PACKAGING
PRODUCTION OF SUGAR FROM SUGAR CANE/SUGAR BEETS
- typically harvested by machines in fields and are
often screened to remove dirt and rocks
HARVESTING
PRODUCTION OF SUGAR FROM SUGAR CANE/SUGAR BEETS
- Occur via belts that are sprayed with water or in
flues that are overflowing with water
- Rotating drums are often used as washing
stations. Water is sprayed into the drum and the
product rotates around inside the drum.
- Sugar cane is crushed with a swing-hammer or
heavily grooved crusher roller, while sugar beets
are cut with a slicing machine, which tears them
into strips smaller than French fries, called
cossettes.
WASHING AND INITIAL PREPARATION
PRODUCTION OF SUGAR FROM SUGAR CANE/SUGAR BEETS
- Milling is used to extract the juice from sugar
cane. Five mills compress the sugar cane fibers
and then the juice is separated from the bagasse
(can be used as fuel source)
- Initial juice na makuha: dark green in color, acidic,
and turbid
JUICE EXTRACTION
PRODUCTION OF SUGAR FROM SUGAR CANE/SUGAR BEETS
- The juice is introduced at the top of the tower and
sulfur dioxide vapor is introduced at the bottom.
- The sulfur dioxide rises up through the tower in a
process called sulfitation.
PURIFICATION OF JUICE
- further separate the soluble non-sugar materials
from the sugar juice - employs calcium carbonate or calcium sulfite to
aid in precipitation - The juice is heated to denature the protein
content and is then mixed with a slurry of calcium hydroxide
(milk of lime) - The clarified juice is then boiled in a series of
vacuum evaporators until it reaches a concentration of
50%–65% sugar.
Carbonation or alkalization
PRODUCTION OF SUGAR FROM SUGAR CANE/SUGAR BEETS
- A single-stage vacuum pan is used to evaporate
the syrup until it is saturated with sugar crystals,
which are formed through a process called
seeding.
- A milky solution of pure sucrose suspended in
alcohol and glycerin is the seed that is slowly
added to the syrup.
- The small grains of sugar present in the solution
serve as nuclei, helping to draw out the sugar in
solution and convert it into crystals.
- As the mixture is boiled in a vacuum pan, water
evaporates and sugar crystals continue to grow
into a paste called massecuite.
- MASSECUITE- a dense mixture of syrup and sugar
crystals obtained by evaporation
CRYSTALLIZATION
PRODUCTION OF SUGAR FROM SUGAR CANE/SUGAR BEETS
- To separate the massecuite into sugar crystals
and molasses, the massecuite is added to a
high-speed centrifuge (1000 to 2800 rpm)
CENTRIFUGATION
PRODUCTION OF SUGAR FROM SUGAR CANE/SUGAR BEETS
- The damp sugar crystals are dried in large, hot air
dryers, reaching a moisture content of as low as
0.02%.
- The dried crystals are then separated into different
sizes through vibrating screens and placed into
storage bins.
DRYING AND PACKAGING
Sugar cane is crushed with a swing-hammer or
heavily grooved crusher roller, while sugar beets
are cut with a slicing machine, which tears them
into strips smaller than French fries, called ___.
cossettes
a dense mixture of syrup and sugar
crystals obtained by evaporation
MASSECUITE
CANE SUGAR REFINING
- AFFINATION
- wherein the raw-sugar crystals are treated with a
heavy syrup (60 to 80° Brix) in order to remove the
film of adhering molasses
- syrup is removed by a centrifuge and the sugar
cake is sprayed with water - CLARIFICATION
- Carbonation and Filtration - DECOLORIZATION
- Two Methods: Granular Activated Carbon (GAC),
Ion-exchange Resin
- employs powdered carbon and Dioctadecyl
dimethylammonium chloride - EVAPORATION
- sugar syrup evaporated up to supersaturation - CRYSTALLIZATION
- The higher grades are sent to different vacuum
pans and concentrated under reduced pressure to
produce various types of sugars. - CENTRIFUGATION
- Crystals are separated from the syrup, washed,
and dropped to the wet sugar storage bin. - DRYING/COOLING
- The wet sugar is dried in a granulator. - SIEVING
- The dried crystals pass over a series of screeN
where they are graded according to size. - BAGGING/PACKING
- Various automatic packing and weighing
machines put up the sugar in barrels, sacks, and
boxes.
Amylum Common Name and Chemical Formula
Starch ((C6H10O5)n)
● also known as “amylum”
● a white, granular, organic chemical that is produced by all
green plants
● soft, white, tasteless powder that is insoluble in cold water
and other solvents
● polysaccharide consisting of glucose units joined by glycosidic bonds
Starch ((C6H10O5)n)
2 Major Components of Starch:
- Amylose (linear polymer)
- Amylopectin (branched form)
MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF STARCH
- RECEIVING
- CORN CLEANING
- STEEPING
- STEEPWATER EVAPORATION
- CORN GRINDING
- GERM/CYCLONE SEPARATORS
- GERM DRYING
- FINE GRINDING
- SCREEN WASHING
- FIBER DRYING
- CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATORS
- STARCH WASHING
- DRIER
- FURTHER PROCESSING
MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF STARCH:
- Corn or maize is collected from farmers or in the
market. Then transported to the unit in trucks in
gunny bags and offloaded in the receiving area or
in silos.
RECEIVING
MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF STARCH:
- Remove impurities such as sand, stone, etc. from
the raw material which is the dent corn.
CORN CLEANING
MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF STARCH:
- changes the structure and physiochemical
properties of corn endosperms, weakens
inter-linking strength of maize and conditions it for
subsequent milling and to prevent germination and
fermentation.
- corn is soaked in hot water (mixture containing
sulfur dioxide) 30 to 48 hours to begin breaking
the starch and protein bonds.
Sulfur dioxide - improves the fermentation by enhancing growth of favorable micro-organisms, preferably lactobacil
STEEPING
MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF STARCH:
- The steepwater containing 10% dry substance is
drained from the kernels and condensed on a
multi-stage evaporator.
STEEPWATER EVAPORATION
MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF STARCH:
- Steeped corn is transferred into the first stage disc
mill and is coarsely ground to loosen the germ and
husk.
- Disc mill is designed to crack the kernel separating
the starch without damaging the corn germ.
CORN GRINDING
MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF STARCH:
- The pasty mix obtained after grinding is pumped
to degerminators.
- This is a three-stage process where the slurry
containing soluble husk, gluten, and starch are
separated from the germ.
GERM/CYCLONE SEPARATORS
MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF STARCH:
- Wet germs are fed into the dryer shell through a
suitable screw feeder.
GERM DRYING
MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF STARCH:
- Removes the bound starch from the fiber
- After the germ separation, the mill flow is finely
ground in impact or attrition mills to release starch
and gluten from the endosperm cell walls.
FINE GRINDING
MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF STARCH:
- The husk is separated from the soluble starch and
gluten slurry by a countercurrent flow system.
- Then it is sent to either the drying section or used
as animal feed in wet form.
SCREEN WASHING
MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF STARCH:
- The washed fiber is transferred to the fiber
dewatering screw press.
FIBER DRYING
MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF STARCH:
- The slurry of starch and protein is passed through
a centrifugal concentrator to get the concentrated
slurry. This machine is also called a milk stream
thickener.
CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATORS
MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF STARCH:
- Separate starch from gluten needs to be washed
using hydrocyclones washing system in order to
remove impurities including protein and fiber.
STARCH WASHING
MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF STARCH:
- The wet product is introduced in the feed hopper in
the form of wet cake from a peeler centrifuge.
- Starch is dried to required moisture before
packing.
DRIER
MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF STARCH:
- The starch that was separated from the remaining
slurry in hydrocyclones can be converted to corn
syrup or made into several products such as corn
sweeteners, dextrose, fructose and other products
through a fermentation process.
FURTHER PROCESSING
● In cornstarch, amylose only makes up 27% of the
total, with amylopectin making up the remaining
73%.
● Linear chain of dextrose units
Amylose
● 10% to 30% of white potatoes are made of starch
White Potato Starch
● Formed from either broken white grains that were
rejected as food or “cargo rice”
● The rice is steeped in a diluted caustic soda
solution for 24 hours.
● The alcohol is removed, the rice is rinsed, new
alcohol is poured, and steeping is then continued
for an additional 36 to 48 hours.
● The softened grains are next mashed using a
caustic solution, and the mash is centrifuged.
Rice Starch
● This starch is obtained from the roots and tubers
of the manioc plant.
Cassava (Tapioca Starch)
● This is obtained from the pith of the sago palm,
and also from yams in the East Indies and Borneo.
● Pearl sago starch is made by drying the starch so
as to form a plastic dough, which is then forced
through sieves and dried in the air.
Sago Starch
5 UNIT OPERATIONS IN THE FERMENTING INDUSTRY
- STERILIZATION
- INOCULATION
- FERMENTATION
- HARVESTING
- FORMULATION
UNIT OPERATIONS IN THE FERMENTING INDUSTRY
● Ensures that the fermentation vessel and other
equipment used in the process are free of
contaminants
STERILIZATION
3 Categories for Sterlization
● Steam Sterilization
- Most common method
- It involves subjecting the equipment to
high-temperature steam for a set period of time.
● Chemical Sterilization
- usage of chemical agents to kill microorganisms
● Irradiation
- exposes the equipment to ionizing radiation, such
as gamma rays or X-rays, to kill microorganisms.
UNIT OPERATIONS IN THE FERMENTING INDUSTRY
● Involves the addition of microorganisms to a
fermentation vessel to initiate the fermentation
process
● Important to ensure that the fermentation process
starts efficiently and that the desired
microorganisms dominate the fermentation
culture.
INOCULATION
3 Categories for Inoculation
● Batch Inoculation - involves adding a concentrated
inoculum to the fermentation vessel at the beginning of the
fermentation process.
● Fed-Batch Inoculation - involves adding a small amount of
inoculum to the fermentation vessel at the beginning of the
fermentation process, followed by the gradual addition of
additional inoculum over time.
● Continuous Inoculation - involves adding a constant flow of
inoculum to the fermentation vessel over time.
- require a constant supply of microorganisms, such
as in wastewater treatment.
UNIT OPERATIONS IN THE FERMENTING INDUSTRY
● Involves the conversion of organic compounds,
such as sugars and carbohydrates, into other
products using microorganisms
● Involves the growth of microorganisms, typically
bacteria or yeast, in a suitable growth medium
under controlled conditions of temperature, pH,
and nutrient availability
● Microorganisms consume the organic compounds
present in the growth medium and convert them
into other products, such as ethanol, lactic acid, or
hydrogen gas
FERMENTATION
5 Types of Fermentation Method:
● Batch fermentation - the entire growth medium is added to
the fermenter at the beginning of the fermentation process,
and the microorganisms are allowed to grow until the
process is complete.
● Fed-batch fermentation - additional nutrients or growth
medium are added to the fermenter during the fermentation
process to support the growth of the microorganisms.
● Continuous fermentation - fresh growth medium is
continuously added to the fermenter, and the fermented
product is continuously removed
● Immobilization - physical or chemical attachment of
microorganisms or enzymes to a support matrix, which
allows for the repeated use of these immobilized cells or
enzymes in subsequent fermentation processes.
● Genetic engineering - involves the manipulation of the
genetic material of microorganisms to
UNIT OPERATIONS IN THE FERMENTING INDUSTRY
● Involves the separation and recovery of the desired
product from the fermentation broth.
HARVESTING
STEPS UNDER HARVESTING AS UNIT OPERATIONS IN THE FERMENTING INDUSTRY
● Clarification- removal of unwanted particles, such as
microorganisms, cell debris, and other impurities, from the
fermentation broth.
● Concentration- implies the removal of excess water from the
fermentation broth to increase the concentration of the
desired product
● Purification- involves the separation and purification of the
desired product from other components in the fermentation broth
UNIT OPERATIONS IN THE FERMENTING INDUSTRY
● Involves the development of a suitable composition or recipe
for the production of a specific product
FORMULATION
● A key product of fermentation industries
INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL
STEPS IN MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL:
- The feedstock is typically treated to convert complex
carbohydrates into simple sugars, which are then fermented
by yeast or bacteria to produce ethanol. - The ethanol is then purified through distillation to produce
anhydrous ethanol.
- sugarcane pulp where it was usually left to rot or
discarded
Bagasse
● Also known as anhydrous ethanol
● Highly purified form of ethanol that contains no water
● The manufacturing process for this is similar to
that of industrial alcohol, with the key difference being the additional steps required to remove any remaining water
from the ethanol
ABSOLUTE ALCOHOL
Additional steps required to manufacture absolute alcohol:
se steps may include:
1. Fermentation - fermentation of various feedstocks, such as
sugarcane, corn, or grains. Yeast is added to the feedstock to
convert the sugars into ethanol.
2. Distillation - ethanol is typically distilled to separate it from
the remaining water and other impurities
3. Dehydration - to remove any remaining water from the
ethanol, additional dehydration steps may be necessary
- azeotropic distillation, which involves adding a
second compound, such as benzene or toluene,
that forms an azeotrope with water.
4. Molecular sieves - porous materials that can selectively
adsorb water molecules
5. Membrane separation- involves passing the ethanol through
a membrane that selectively allows water molecules to pass
through, leaving behind a more concentrated ethanol
solution.
● Produced by fermenting sugars using yeast or bacteria
● Fermentation process converts the sugars into alcohol,
carbon dioxide, and other compounds that give the beverage
its characteristic flavor and aroma
Alcoholic Beverages
Key Applications of Fermentation for Beers, Wines and Liquors:
- Brewing Beer
● Type of yeast and other microorganisms used, as
well as the specific brewing process, can have a
significant impact on the flavor and aroma of the
beer - Producing Wine
● Involves the conversion of the sugar in the grapes
into alcohol and carbon dioxide, along with other
compounds that contribute to the flavor and
aroma of the wine - Distilling Spirits
● Spirits such as whiskey, vodka, and gin are
produced by distilling fermented grains or other
materials
● The fermentation process for spirits is similar to
that used for beer, but the resulting “wash” is then
distilled to increase the alcohol content and
remove impurities.
● Fermentation process forthis involves a combination
of yeast and bacteria, which convert the sugars in the tea
into organic acids, carbon dioxide, and other compounds
that give the beverage its characteristic flavor and
“fizz-iness”.
Kombucha
● Made by fermenting a mixture of ginger, sugar, and water
● However, the fermentation process is usually stopped before
significant alcohol is produced, resulting in a beverage with a
low alcohol content or no alcohol at all.
Ginger Beer
● Made by coagulating milk proteins using enzymes and
acid-producing bacteria.
● The coagulated milk is then separated into curds and whey,
which are further processed and aged to develop flavor and
texture.
Cheese
● Made by heating milk and inoculating it with specific strains
of bacteria, typically Lactobacillus bulgaricus and
Streptococcus Thermophilus.
● The bacteria convert lactose, the primary sugar in milk, into
lactic acid, which gives yogurt its characteristic tangy flavor
and thick texture.
Yogurt
● Made by fermenting milk using lactic acid bacteria. The
bacteria produce lactic acid, which gives buttermilk its
characteristic tangy flavor and thick texture
Buttermilk
● Made by fermenting cream using lactic acid bacteria.The
bacteria produce lactic acid, which gives sour cream its
characteristic tangy flavor and thick texture.
Sour cream
● Also known as n-butanol.
● A four-carbon alcohol that is commonly used as a solvent
● Produced through the fermentation of sugars by certain
strains of bacteria, such as Clostridium acetobutylicum.
BUTYL ALCOHOL
● A three-carbon ketone that is widely used as a solvent
● Produced through the fermentation of sugars by certain
strains of bacteria, such as Clostridium acetobutylicum,
which also produces butyl alcohol.
ACETONE
acetone-butanol-ethanol (ABE) fermentation process:
- Preparation of the fermentation media - Using a mixture of
carbon and nitrogen sources, along with other essential
nutrients required for bacterial growth. - Inoculation - The fermentation media is inoculated with the
selected strain of bacteria, such as Clostridium
acetobutylicum, which is capable of producing butanol and
acetone as byproducts. - Fermentation - Under controlled conditions of temperature,
pH, and oxygen levels, the bacteria consume the sugars
present in the media and produce butanol and acetone as
byproducts. - Separation and Purification - Butanol and acetone are
separated from the other byproducts using distillation or
other separation techniques. The purified butanol and acetone are then further processed and used for various
industrial applications.
Acetic Acid Chemical Formula
(CH3COOH)
Production Process for Acetic Acid:
oduction Process:
● Microorganisms to break down the substrate into acetic acid
- Large-scale manufacturing using microorganisms
like yeasts (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and
bacteria (Acetobacter aceti)
● Methanol carbonylation
● Catalytic oxidation of acetaldehyde
CITRIC ACID CHEMICAL FORMULA
(C6H8O7)
- manufactured by aerobic fermentation of crude sugar or
corn sugar by a special strain of Aspergillus niger
CITRIC ACID (C6H8O7)
LACTIC ACID CHEMICAL FORMULA
(C3H6O3)
- “2-hydroxypropionic acid”
- occurs naturally in plants, animals, and microorganisms
- produced by fermenting carbohydrates or through chemical
synthesis using coal, petroleum products, or natural gas
LACTIC ACID (C3H6O3)
method where hydrogen cyanide is added to liquid acetaldehyde in the presence of a base catalyst under high pressure.
Lactonitrile method
- L-glutamic acid can be obtained directly from the
fermentation of carbohydrates using Micrococcus
glutamicus or Brevibacterium divaricatum.
Monosodium Glutamate
- Microorganisms, such as Micrococcus glutamicus,
Brevibacterium flavum, Corynebacterium
acetoglutamicum, and Microbacterium
ammoniaphilum, can create lysine by breaking
down carbohydrates.
L-Lysine
Dihydroxyacetone Chemical Fomrula
(HOCH2COCH2OH)
- produced through the fermentation of glycerin by a
type of bacteria called sorbose bacterium
Dihydroxyacetone (HOCH2COCH2OH)
● Researchers have developed methods to immobilize
this on a solid support, which makes them more
resistant to changes in pH and temperature.
● There are various techniques to immobilize this,
adsorption on an ion-exchange resin is the oldest one.
● Glucose isomerase, a newer application, is used to convert
glucose to fructose.
● Amylase can be isolated from the fermentation mixture
through precipitation with isoamyl alcohol and
centrifugation.
Enzymes
- natural, cellular, composite material of botanical origin
- served as a principal source of fuel
- solid portion is over 95% organic
Wood
- natural, cellular, composite material of botanical origin
- served as a principal source of fuel
- solid portion is over 95% organic
Wood
Woos is mainly made up of 3 polymeric constituents, namely
cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin (with a rough proportion
of 2:1:1 respectively)
- approximately 45% of the dry weight in an ordered array of
high molecular weight glucose polymer chains.
Cellulose
- disordered array of several sugar polymers, which have no
economical use except as fuel
Hemicellulose
- an amorphous polyphenol polymer, which serves as a binder
for the cellulose fibers
Lignin
- varies from species to species but makes up to 5% to 30% of
the wood
Extract
2 CLASSIFICATIONS OF WOOD
- HARDWOODS
- SOFTWOODS
- come from deciduous trees
- temperate and tropical climates
HARDWOODS
- come from conifers (gymnosperm trees,
cone-bearing seed plants with vascular tissue)
SOFTWOODS
cull trees left growing in the cutover lands
Green Junk
PRODUCTS OF DISTILLATION OF HARDWOOD
● Charcoal
● Acetic Acid (preparation of various inorganic acetates and
white lead pigment)
3 Main Divisions of Naval Stores Industry:
- Gum Naval Stores
- Steam-distilled Naval Stores
- Sulfate Navals
- produced from crude gum (oleoresin) from living
longleaf and slash pine trees (5% of all rosin and
4% of all turpentine
Gum Naval Stores
- from resin-saturated stumps of the original
old-growth longleaf and slash pine forests of the
Southeast (42% of all rosin and 13% of all
turpentine).
Steam-distilled Naval Stores
- produced from formerly wasted sulfate, or kraft
liquors (54% of all rosin as tall oil rosin and 82% of
all turpentine) - Major products: turpentines, rosin, pine oils, rosin
oils, spirits, and pine-tar pitches and tars
Sulfate Navals
- made from certain pines
- but because of its strong odor it was replaced by volatile
petroleum fractions
Turpentine
- semi-transparent, yellow to black colored, solid form of resin
from pines and other conifers - produced by heating liquid resin to vaporize the volatile liquid
terpene components
Rosin
- by-product of the pulp and paper industry samples
- mixture of mainly acidic compounds in pine trees
Tall oils
- organic substance that supports the tissues of most plants
Lignins
MANUFACTURE OF NAVAL STORES
- Processing of gum
Steps:
● Only direct-fired copper stills were used to make gum.
● The rosin remained in the kettle and was taken out in a
molten, impure form at the conclusion of the run and filtered
to remove wood chips, pine needles, dirt, etc.
● The turpentine was distilled out with the water and separated
by gravity. - Steam and solvent process
● The cutover pine forests of the South offer the raw materials,
mostly stumps and other resinous waste wood.
- utilizes waste materials like wood, waste paper and
municipal waste which contain cellulose that can be
converted into sugar that can be fermented into ethanol
HYDROLYSIS OF WOOD
● In the sulfite process for the production of pulp, sugars are
produced by the hydrolysis of wood components that are
dissolved away during the production of paper fibers.
● First, the pulp is removed from the sulfite waste liquor and
conditioned for fermentation.
● After chilling the liquid to 30°C and adding lime (to adjust the
pH to 4.5) and urea fertilizer, it is pumped into fermentors
and fermented.
● The alcohol is extracted by distillation and refined
Wood Saccharification
3 CELLULOSE DERIVATIVES
Alpha-cellulose
Ethers
High-viscosity hydroxyethyl cellulose
- a highly refined form of cellulose used to produce
cellulose nitrate for plastics and explosives as well
as the majority of chemical derivatives
Alpha-cellulose
- ethyl cellulose, methyl cellulose, and
carboxymethyl cellulose
Ethers
- beneficial as a thickening and a protective colloid
in water-based coatings.
High-viscosity hydroxyethyl cellulose
Raw Material and Preparation for Pulp and Paper Industries
● Wood is the main source of cellulose for paper making aside
from cotton, linen rags, and waste.
● Softwood- mas prefer nila gamiton since the fibers are much
longer kaysa atung hardwood
● Ginatanggal nila ang bark sa tree kay lisod daw sya ibleach
and wala daw stay useful fibers. It will also darken the pulp,
require extra chemical usage, and bring contaminants such
as calcium, silica, and aluminum into the chemical recovery
system.
4 RAW MATERIAL PREPARATION FOR PULP MANUFACTURING
- Debarking
- CHIPPING
- CHIP SCREENING
- CHIP STORAGE
RAW MATERIAL PREPARATION FOR PULP MANUFACTURING
- ensure that the pulp is free of bark and dirt
Debarking
METHODS FOR DEBARKING AS RAW MATERIAL PREPARATION FOR PULP MANUFACTURING
● Cylindrical Debarking Drum
- abrades off the bark utilizing friction by tumbling
or rotating action in a moving mass of logs
- Types: tumbling debarking drum and parallel
debarking drum
● Hydraulic debarking
- a jet of high-pressure water (at about 10 MPa) is
directed tangentially to the log and strips away the
bark cleanly, breaks it up, and sluices it away
Additionally:
● Gentle Debarking
- involves debarking the logs in a relatively short
drum, and bark is removed afterward in a roller
section
RAW MATERIAL PREPARATION FOR PULP MANUFACTURING
● Logs are reduced to chip fragments needed for the
subsequent pulping operations.
● The chips should be small enough so that the heat
and chemicals can penetrate and diffuse
throughout the wood material in order for the chip
to be cooked in a homogenous way.
CHIPPING
RAW MATERIAL PREPARATION FOR PULP MANUFACTURING
● Chips are sorted according to the length that will
be fed to the digester.
● The chips are usually screened after chipping and
before transfer to the chip storage to remove the
oversize particles and fine.
CHIP SCREENING
2 TYPES OF SCREENS OF CHIPPING SCREENING
gyratory and disc screens
Screen consists of a vibrating screen plate, commonly having
round holes of certain size, either for oversize and fine.
gyratory screen
Screen is composed of discs, which are mounted
on parallel rotating shafts.
disc screen
RAW MATERIAL PREPARATION FOR PULP MANUFACTURING
● The most common storage volume measures 750,
000 m3.
● The chip storage is used to homogenize the flow
of the chips into the digester. It also used to
control the portion of various chip types being fed
to the digester.
CHIP STORAGE
● Wala pay chemicals ipang add diari
● Solely depends on the mechanical attrition to pulp
lignocellulosic wood material
MECHANICAL PULPING
The 5 main subdivisions of mechanical pulping
● Stone groundwood (SGW) pulping
● Refiner mechanical pulping (RMP)
● Thermomechanical pulping (TMP)
● Chemi Mechanical pulping (CMP)
● Pressure groundwood pulping (PGW)
The main subdivisions of mechanical pulping:
- by grinding short logs, called bolts, with
grindstones on the tangential and radial surfaces.
- Low density wood daw usually ginagamit
Stone groundwood (SGW) pulping
Newsprint requires ___ hp-day/ton, whereas book paper uses ___ hp-day/ton.
Newsprint requires 55 – 70 hp-day/ton, whereas book paper uses 60 – 85 hp-day/ton.
The main subdivisions of mechanical pulping:
- by disintegrating chips between revolving metal
discs or plates with raised bars at atmospheric
pressure
- Wood chips are fed into a pressurized pre-heater,
with a metering screw in the bottom which sets
the throughput.
Refiner mechanical pulping (RMP)
The main subdivisions of mechanical pulping:
- very similar to the RMP process, except that pulp
is made in special refiners that are pressurized
with steam in the first stage of refining.
Thermomechanical pulping (TMP)
2 Types of Chemi Mechanical pulping (CMP)
★ Chemi Thermomechanical Pulping
★ Semichemical Pulping
Type of Chemi Mechanical pulping (CMP):
- the chips are first pretreated with relatively small
amounts (about 2% on dry wood) of sodium sulfite
or sodium hydroxide below elevated temperature
and pressure before refining
Chemi Thermomechanical Pulping
Type of Chemi Mechanical pulping (CMP):
- Also called high-yield chemical pulping
- In the first step, a mild chemical treatment is used,
which is followed by moderate mechanical
refining.
❖ Neutral Sulfite Semichemical Pulping (NSSC)
❖ Kraft Green Liquor Semi Chemical Process
Semichemical Pulping
The main subdivisions of mechanical pulping:
- By pressurizing the grinder with steam at
temperatures of 105 – 125 °C, the wood is heated
and softened before the grinding process.
Pressure groundwood pulping (PGW)
The most employed process by any industry as it guarantees a high delignification process, making high quality paper when bleached. It involves sulfate or kraft pulping and sulfite
pulping.
Chemical pulping
★ A full chemical pulping method using NaOH and Na2S at pH
above 12, at 160 – 180°C corresponding to about 800 kPa
steam pressure, for 0.5 – 3 h to dissolve much of the lignin
of wood fibers.
Kraft Pulping (Sulfate Pulping)
STEPS FOR KRAFT PULPING:
- IMPREGNATION
- COOKING
- RECOVERY PROCESS
- BLOWING
- SCREENING
- WASHING
- BLEACHING
STEPS FOR KRAFT PULPING:
- Chips enter the continuous digester and are
pre-steamed at approximately 100 kPa, volatilizing
the turpentine and non condensable gases.
IMPREGNATION
STEPS FOR KRAFT PULPING:
- The cooking liquor (white liquor) penetrates into
the capillary structure of the chips and low
temperature chemical reactions with the wood
begin in pressurized vessels called digesters.
COOKING
- solid pulp after cooking
- represents about 50% (by weight) of the dry wood
chips and is collected and washed
Brown Stock
- combined liquids that contain lignin fragments,
carbohydrates (from the breakdown of hemicellulose), sodium
carbonate, sodium sulfate and other inorganic salts.
Black Liquor
STEPS FOR KRAFT PULPING:
- The excess black liquor contains about 15% solids
and is concentrated in a multiple effect evaporator.
- This multi-stage process frees rosin soap to rise to
the surface, which is then collected and processed
to tall oil.
- The remaining “weak” black liquor is further
evaporated until it is 65-80% solid, before finally
burned in a recovery boiler to recover the inorganic
chemicals for reuse in the pulping process.
RECOVERY PROCESS
molten salts
Smelt
- a process water
Weak white liquor
- resulting solution of sodium carbonate and
sodium sulfide
Green liquor
STEPS FOR KRAFT PULPING:
- Digester blowing occurs at the end of a cook when
the contents of a digester are cooled to about 100
°C and allowed to escape at an atmospheric
pressure.
BLOWING
STEPS FOR KRAFT PULPING:
- After pulping, the pulp (“accept”) is separated from
large shives, knots, dirt and other debris (“reject”)
by a combination of different types of sieves
(screens) and centrifugal cleaning.
SCREENING
STEPS FOR KRAFT PULPING:
- The solid pulp (“brown stock”) from the blowing
process goes to the washing stages, where the
used cooking liquors are separated from the
cellulose fibers.
WASHING
STEPS FOR KRAFT PULPING:
- After washing, the cellulose fibers (“brown stock”)
are further delignified by a variety of bleaching
stages.
- Bleaching decreases the mass of pulp produced
by about 5%, decreases the strength of the fibers
and adds to the cost of manufacture.
BLEACHING
★ The usual sulfite process consists of digestion of the wood
in an aqueous solution containing calcium bisulfate and an
excess of sulfur dioxide.
★ Sulfite pulp is a high-grade type of pulp and serves in the
manufacture of some of the finest papers, including bond. It
is easy to bleach, but the fibers are weak and the process
began to be replaced as soon as the ClO2 bleaching process
made kraft bleaching practical.
Sulfite Pulping
- The liquor is ordinarily made at the mill by burning
sulfur to form SO2 gas and dissolving this in water
to produce sulfurous acid (H2SO3). - The digester is filled with chips, and the acid
cooking liquor is pumped in at the bottom. - The digester is heated with direct steam. The
pressure in the digester varies from 480 to 1100
kPa, depending upon the construction of the plant.
The time and temperature range are from 6 to 12 h
and from 170 to 176 °C respectively.
Liquor Preparation of Sulfite Pulping
Calcium-based sulfite waste liquor does not permit
recovery and reuse of either the Ca or S content
- Magnesium and ammonium-based liquor can be
recovered, but the ammonia cannot be recovered.
- Sodium base can be recovered, but the recovery
process is complex.
- Only the magnesium based is conveniently and
simply handled, and this explains the reason why it
is preferred.
Waste Sulfite Liquor
It is brought about by a procedure similar to that
used for sulfate pulp, except that the dissolving agent is
NaOH/Na2CO3 and the make-up chemical is Na2CO3.
Soda Pulping
- The oldest material used for making paper, and the material
still used for finest grades, is cotton in the form of rags or
cotton linters.
Rag Pulping
2 General Processes for Manufacture of Paper
- Beating
- Beating the fibers makes the paper stronger, more uniform, more dense, more opaque, and less porous. - Refining
2 general types of machines used for the actual formation of the
sheet:
- Fourdrinier Machine
- Cylinder Machine
Type of machine used for the actual formation of the sheet:
- The very dilute stock from the foregoing operation,
containing approximately 1⁄2 %fiber, is first sent
through screens to the head box from which it
flows through a calibrated sluice onto a moving,
endless wire screen.
Fourdrinier Machine
Type of machine used for the actual formation of the sheet:
- For the manufacture of heavy paper, cardboard, or
nonuniform paper, the cylinder machine is
employed.
Cylinder Machine
- a big molecule made up of several connected, equal or
similar subunits
Examples: Cellulose, silk, rubber, muscle fiber, horn, hair and DNA
Polymer
- frequently used to describe synthetic, or man-made,
polymers. - cannot be used interchangeably
Plastic
4 Common categories for plastics
● Thermosetting
● Thermoplastic
● Oil-soluble
● Protein Products
Four categories of plastics based on the source of their derivation:
natural resins, cellulose derivatives, protein
products, and synthetic resins
Produced by condensation polymerization are typically thermosetting (heat curing results in an infusible or insoluble product), while those produced by addition polymerization are
normally thermoplastic, unless otherwise specified (heating softens and cooling hardens).
Synthetic resins
- are high-performance, high-strength polymers that can
replace metal in a variety of applications - Few examples of their uses are :
Pumps, valves, and gears, as well as driveshafts and transmissions in heavy-duty machinery
Engineering plastics
23 Types of Resin
● Phenolic
● Aminos
● Polyester
● Alkyds
● Polycarbonates
● Polyamides
● Aromatic Polyamides
● Polyimides
● Polyurethanes
● Polyethers
● Epoxies
● Silicones
● Ionomers
● Phenoxies
● Polyethylene
● Polypropylene
● Polybutylene
● Fluorocarbons
● Polyvinyl Chloride
● Acrylic
● Polystyrene
● Cellulosics
● Furanes
TYPE OF RESIN:
Properties
- High resistance to chemical corrosion, impact
resistance, thermal stability, machinability, and
moisture penetration
Phenolic
TYPE OF RESIN:
Properties
- Extreme surface hardness, chemical and solvent
resistance, high heat resistance, and color stability
Aminos
TYPE OF RESIN:
Properties
- Excellent heat, chemical, and flame resistance;
high processing versatility; low cost; and superior
mechanical and electrical qualities
Polyester
TYPE OF RESIN:
Properties
- Excellent thermal and electrical qualities, flexibility
or rigidity in a wide range, and strong chemical
resistance
Alkyds
TYPE OF RESIN:
Properties
- Excellent chemical, electrical, and thermal
properties, a high refractive index, good
dimensional stability, transparency,
self-extinguishing properties, stain resistance, and
good creep resistance are all present in this
material.
Polycarbonates
TYPE OF RESIN:
Properties
- Self-extinguishing, light, abrasion-resistant, low
coefficient of friction, tough, sturdy, and easily
moldable
Polyamides
TYPE OF RESIN:
Properties
- High-temperature resistance
Aromatic Polyamides
Also: Polyimides
TYPE OF RESIN:
Properties
- Excellent physical, chemical, and electrical
qualities, and tremendous versatility when coupled
with other resins
Polyurethanes
TYPE OF RESIN:
Properties
- High resistance to corrosion caused by common
acids, alkalies, and salts; can be seam welded and
machined to match any type, shape, or size of
structure
Polyethers
TYPE OF RESIN:
Properties
- Good electrical qualities, good heat resistance,
robust and durable with minimal shrinking while
curing, good adhesive properties
Epoxies
TYPE OF RESIN:
Properties
- Excellent electrical qualities, flexibility, good
thermal and oxidative stability, and overall
inertness
Silicones
TYPE OF RESIN:
Properties
- Excellent electrical qualities, flexibility, good
thermal and oxidative stability, and overall
inertness
Silicones
TYPE OF RESIN:
Properties
- Outstanding low-temperature flexural
characteristics, exceptional transparency, and
excellent toughness, abrasion resistance
Ionomers
TYPE OF RESIN:
Properties
- Self-extinguishing, easy to mold, strong heat
stability, low mold shrinkage, and good cold flow
Phenoxies
TYPE OF RESIN:
Properties
- Low power factor, weak mechanical strength,
remarkable moisture-vapor resistance, high degree
of flexibility, excellent chemical resistance
Polyethylene
TYPE OF RESIN:
Properties
- Low density, colorless and odorless, excellent
surface hardness, excellent chemical resistance,
and outstanding electrical qualities; also, excellent
heat resistance that is “unbreakable”
Polypropylene
TYPE OF RESIN:
Properties
- Good chemical resistance, good toughness, and
excellent heat resistance to polyethylene. High
resistance to abrasive slurries.
Polybutylene
TYPE OF RESIN:
Properties
- Low dielectric strength, remarkable chemical
inertness, low permeability, low coefficient of
friction, and low moisture absorption
Fluorocarbons
TYPE OF RESIN:
Properties
- Good physical characteristics, superior chemical
resistance, simplicity of processing, affordability,
self-extinguishing, and capacity to be blended with
other resins
Polyvinyl Chloride
TYPE OF RESIN:
Properties
- Clarity like crystal, exceptional weatherability, fair
chemical resistance, good impact and tensile
strength, and resistance to UV exposure
Acrylic
TYPE OF RESIN:
Properties
- Excellent clarity, low cost, simple processing, great
resilience to acids, alkalies, and salts, softened by
hydrocarbons, and adaptability
Polystyrene
TYPE OF RESIN:
Properties
- Excellent strength, high impact resistance, low
thickening agents, high dielectric strength, textile
and paper finishes, toughness, and surface luster
Cellulosics
TYPE OF RESIN:
Properties
- Excellent resistance to both acids and
bases, good adhesive properties
Furanes
6 Raw Materials of Plastic as Chemical Intermediates and Monomers
● Phenol
● Formaldehyde
● Hexamethylenetetramine
● Vinyl Ester
● Methyl Acrylate and Methacrylate
● Phthalic Anhydride
Raw Material of Plastic as Chemical Intermediates and Monomers:
- simplest of phenols, which are a class of organic
compounds with a hydroxyl group and a benzene ring
- a precursor used to make resins and nylons, and it is
frequently employed in organic synthesis
- insulation, adhesives, lacquers, paint, solvents, rubber, ink,
dyes, illuminating gases, perfumes, soaps, and toys are
made with it
Phenol
Raw Material of Plastic as Chemical Intermediates and Monomers:
- Methanol and water react at a temperature of 115
°C over a silver catalyst to produce this.
Formaldehyde
Raw Material of Plastic as Chemical Intermediates and Monomers:
- is created by evaporating the formaldehyde and
ammonia reaction product.
- is used in the rubber industry to make the
explosive cyclonite, as a urinary antiseptic
(Urotropine), and in other applications and
primarily in the production of
phenol-formaldehyde resins, where it is referred
to as “‘hexa”
Hexamethylenetetramine
Raw Material of Plastic as Chemical Intermediates and Monomers:
- is frequently used in coating, adhesives, and
fiber-reinforced composite construction due to its
high strength and modulus, minimal shrinkage,
and superior thermal stability. As the resin is
cured, however, it becomes brittle.
Vinyl Ester
Process in Manufacturing Formaldehyde
➔ The downstream distillation columns separate and store the
37% formaldehyde in huge tanks.
➔ The plant’s primary chemical inputs are methanol and water.
Local biomass-fueled combined heat and power plants
supply the electricity needed for the process.
➔ The facility is in charge of direct emissions like evaporative
losses of formaldehyde and methanol
Raw Material of Plastic as Chemical Intermediates and Monomers:
- Monomers of methyl, ethyl, and butyl methacrylate
as well as methyl, ethyl, and acrylate are produced
in huge quantities.
Methyl Acrylate and Methacrylate
The process of ____ of ethylene is typically used to create vinyl chloride.
oxychlorination (dehydrochlorination)
Exposure to vinyl chloride monomer must not exceed ___ ppm over an 8-hour period and ___ ppm over a 15-minute timeframe.
Exposure to vinyl chloride monomer must not exceed 1 ppm over an 8-hour period and 5 ppm over a 15-minute timeframe.
Raw Material of Plastic as Chemical Intermediates and Monomers:
- is the source of phthalate esters, which serve as
plasticizers
Phthalic Anhydride
Modifications made to the process of producing phthalic anhydride
- Shift in the naphthalene’s source
- A purer source from petrochemicals was created
by demethylation methyl naphthalenes to replace
the diminishing supply from coal tar. - Involved switching from the long-effective fixed bed of the
catalyst V.O. to a fluidized bed - Involved using o-xylene in either of the aforementioned
processes. - The creation of new catalysts that would function well with
either naphthalene or o-xylene - Employing a molten salt bath to remove the significant heat
of reaction.
The traditional process for making methyl methacrylate, or
MMA, involved?
reacting hydrogen cyanide with acetone and then
treating the resulting mixture with methyl alcohol.
The most recent method for making MMA
purportedly yields 70% and employs a catalytic oxidation of isobutylene or tert-butyl alcohol.
This method will still be employed, although for now tert-butyl alcohol is more beneficial as an octane enhancer in gasoline.
cyanohydrin method
3 Other Raw Materials of Plastics
● Natural Products
● Plasticizer
● Fillers and Reinforcements
Other Raw Material of Plastics:
The most frequent biomolecule is cellulose, the saccharide
found in cell walls.
➔ This glucan can be found in the cell walls of plants
and algae, as well as in the bacterial pellicles and
the skin of marine animals called tunicates.
➔ Lumber made of cellulose is also utilized as a
fiber. Seed hairs from many plants, such as cotton,
kapok, and milkweed, are entire cells that are
primarily made of cellulose.
Natural Products
Other Raw Material of Plastics:
- are typically colorless liquids that have a low
volatility.
Plasticizer
Other Raw Material of Plastics:
- To improve plastics’ strength, thermal conductivity,
resistance to heat distortion, and reduced thermal
expansion, a variety of materials can be added.
Fillers and Reinforcements
- a stiff plastic, is transformed into a supple, elastic material
using plasticizers
PVC
TRUE OR FALSE:
Plasticizers can be categorized based on their structure or function. Primary or secondary functional classifications are used.
TRUE
4 General Polymerization Processes
Bulk Polymerization
Solution Polymerization
Suspension Polymerization
Emulsion Polymerization
General Polymerization Processes:
- also known as mass polymerization
- In this method, there is no usage of a solvent.
➔ The monomer can be polymerized in bulk either as a liquid or as a vapor.
➔ In a reactor, the monomers and activator are combined and as necessary heated or cooled. In some instances, the polymers are soluble in their liquid monomers, which significantly raises the viscosity of the solution
Bulk Polymerization
General Polymerization Processes:
● In this method, the solvent medium in which the
polymerization reaction takes place is carefully selected
based on the chemical compatibility of the reacting
monomers.
Solution Polymerization
General Polymerization Processes:
● Stabilizers such talc, fuller’s earth, and bentonite are added to the water during this process to stabilize the suspension
Suspension Polymerization
General Polymerization Processes:
● Water, up to 3% of surfactants, and a free-radical generator soluble in water rather than being monomer soluble makeup emulsion polymerization systems. If the same monomer is employed under the same temperature circumstances, the rate of emulsion polymerization is higher than that of the bulk of polymerization. As the process progresses, the monomer is gradually added to the system.
Emulsion Polymerization
8 Condensation-Polymerization Products
PHENOLICS
AMINO RESIN
POLYESTER RESIN
ALKYD RESIN
POLYCARBONATES
EPOXY RESIN
POLYIMIDES
POLYSULFONES
Condensation-Polymerization Product:
- first commercially available polymeric materials made from low-molecular-weight simple chemicals
PHENOLICS
Condensation-Polymerization Product:
- condensation thermosetting polymers of formaldehyde with either urea or melamine
AMINO RESIN
Condensation-Polymerization Product:
- Unsaturated polyester resin is a thermoset that, under the correct circumstances, can be cured from either a liquid or solid state.
- Viscous liquids made of a polyester solution in a monomer, usually styrene
POLYESTER RESIN
Condensation-Polymerization Product:
- The product of the reaction of an oil with an acid and an alcohol.
ALKYD RESIN
Condensation-Polymerization Product:
- One of the thermoplastic polymers that may be easily
molded using thermoforming methods.
POLYCARBONATES
Condensation-Polymerization Product:
- A molecule with more than one epoxy group that can be changed into a thermoset form
EPOXY RESIN
Condensation-Polymerization Product:
- High-performance thermoplastic polymers
- Have a high hydrogen content like polyethylene
POLYIMIDES
Condensation-Polymerization Product:
- They are unaffected by oil or grease and are hydrolytically, thermally, and oxidatively stable.
- A thermoplastic amorphous substance having a high glass transition temperature.
POLYSULFONES
6 Natural Products of Plastics
● Cellulose derivatives
● Cellulose Nitrate
● Ethyl Cellulose Products
● Shellac
● Lignin plastics
● Protein Derivatives
Natural Product of Plastics:
- The basic raw material for cellulose derivative
goods is wood cellulose, which is produced in
millions of tons annually. Another important
source of cellulose byproducts is cotton linters.
The cotton linters used to make cellulose acetate
are also used to make high-tenacity rayon and
polymers
Cellulose derivatives
Natural Product of Plastics:
- Since it is so highly combustible, fully nitrated
cellulose is inappropriate for use as a plastic
foundation. As a result, a partially nitrated product
is created.
- Plastics are made with materials containing 11%
nitrogen, lacquers with 12% nitrogen, and
explosives with fully nitrated materials, or those
containing 138% nitrogen
Cellulose Nitrate
Natural Product of Plastics:
- the hydrogen in the hydroxyl groups has been swapped out with ethyl groups.
Ethyl Cellulose Products
Natural Product of Plastics:
- The insect Kerria lacca, which is indigenous to
India, secretes a resinous substance that is used
to make this.
Shellac
Natural Product of Plastics:
- High-pressure steam breaks the lignin bond in
woody materials and activates it so that it can be
utilized as a plastic binder.
Lignin plastics
Natural Product of Plastics:
- widely used today in glues, adhesives, and paper
coatings
Protein Derivatives
● The thermosetting class of resins make up the majority of laminated plastics, which also contain fiber fillers like glass, carbon, metal, and certain polymers.
● There are two varieties of foamed or cellular plastics: closed cell and open cell.
● Each cell in a closed cell is totally contained, whereas in an open cell, the cells are linked together like the fibers of a sponge.
Laminates and Foams
● Classification of noncellulosic fibers are done chemically or by spinning method.
Synthetic Fibers
3 Spinning Methods
- Melt Spinning
- Dry spinning
- Wet spinning
Spinning Method:
● Done by pushing liquefied polymer through capillaries.
● The pumped polymer is then solidified in cool air or water and stretched to produce fibers.
● Developed mainly for nylon pero pwede rasad sya for polyester, polyvinyl, and polypropylene
Melt Spinning
Spinning Method:
● Done through controlled fiber evaporation
● With this method, the polymer is mixed with an organic solvent.
● Dry filaments are then formed by pumping the solution
through a spinneret for it to be in contact with dry air
which results in solvent evaporation.
● For producing acrylics and vinyl-acrylic copolymers
Dry spinning
Spinning Method:
● Method of fiber manufacturing a solution obtained by
dissolving the polymer in a solvent
● This solution is then expelled into a chemical bath.
● For producing acrylics, such as acrilan and creslan
Wet spinning
● Polymers with compositions bonded together by amide links
● With that, the formula of an amine group contains -CONH2.
Polyamides
● First completely synthetic fiber that was produced
commercially and this was manufactured through
condensation polymerization - a process of polymer
formation wherein a tiny molecule is separated-of two
molecules, each containing 6 carbon atoms.
Nylon-6,6
2 Main Processes for Nylon Production
● Creation of polymers
● Binding of polymers
Heating, Spinning and Manufacturing Process for Nylon Prodcution:
Steps:
1. Polymers are subjected sa sakto lang na temperature.
2. The molten material is then pumped through a spinneret para maseparate sya into thin strands.
3. Forda iexpose daw sya sa air ang mga strands para mugahi daw.
4. The solidified product can then wound onto bobbins. Most importantly, to adjust the strength and elasticity of the strands, the fibers are stretched until the desired characteristic is obtained.
5. The molecules are arranged into a parallel arrangement using a procedure known as drawing.
6. They can be blended and further melted, or they can be bound or weaved just as they are. The End!
● The ester functional group is present in the monomer of polyester, a type of polymer.
POLYESTERS
4 Categories of Polyesters
★ PET- Polyethylene terephthalate
★ PTA- Purified Terephthalic Acid
★ MEG- Mono Ethylene Glycol
★ DMT- Dimethyl Terephthalate
★ Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) - source of acrylic fibers, which are synthetic fibers.
★ Acrylonitrile is polymerized to create Orlon. Although it can be dissolved in numerous concentrated salt solutions, the ivory-white polymer is typically dissolved in an organic solvent called dimethylformamide.
● For maximum strength, arrange the molecules into long parallel chains.
ACRYLICS AND MODACRYLICS
- source of acrylic fibers, which are synthetic fibers.
Polyacrylonitrile (PAN)
TRUE OR FALSE:
For maximum strength of acrylics and modacrylics, arrange the molecules into long series chains.
FALSE
For maximum strength of acrylics and modacrylics, arrange the molecules into long parallel chains.
● This is the collective term for artificial fibers in which the long-chain synthetic polymer that forms fibers is any
substance with less than 35% or more by weight of
acrylonitrile units, but no less than 85%
MODACRYLICS
Process for Manufacturing Modacrylics
● The resin is altered to become in a continuous wet- spinning procedure staple (cf. viscose rayon).
● The powdery white resin is filtered after being dissolved in acetone, and then sent through a spinneret, where the fibers are created in a water-filled spinning bath.
● The fiber is chopped, crimped, and dried.
- can be copolymerized to form saran.
Vinyl chloride and vinylidene chloride
MANUFATURING PROCESS OF VINYL AND VINYLIDINE
- It is made through blending. heating and a catalyst for the two monomers. Pigment is put to something
- Heat is applied to the copolymer before it is stretched and extruded at 180°C.
- The copolymer is filtered after being dissolved in acetone to a 22% solids level.
- The fibers are then extruded using the dry-spinning method.
- The fibers are stretched and wet-twisted after standing
the trade name given to copolymers comprising 90% vinyl chloride and 10% vinyl acetate.
Vinyon
● “a manufactured fiber in which the fiber-forming substance is a long chain synthetic polymer comprising at least 85% of a segmented polyurethane”
SPANDEX
● A polymer created from an olefin or alkene as a monomer
● In organic chemistry, an unsaturated chemical molecule with at least one carbon to carbon double bond is known as an alkene or olefin.
POLYOLEFINS
In organic chemistry, an unsaturated chemical molecule with at least one carbon to carbon double bond is known as?
alkene or olefin
● Molecules that only include fluorine and carbon
FLUOROCARBONS
- Polytetrafluoroethylene
- A nonflammable fiber or film that is extremely resistant to oxidation and the effects of chemicals, including strong acids. and oxidizing substances.
Teflon
● Sand that contains silica (SiO2) is used to make this for textile use.
GLASS FIBER
MANUFACTING PROCESS OF GLASS FIBER
Pure SiO2 can be heated to 1720°C/3128°F and swiftly cooled to avoid crystallization, producing the amorphous or randomly arranged atomic structure that is known as glass.
1. Batching
2. Melting
3. Fiberization
4. Coating
5. Drying/Packing
● Spun fibers that have two or more separate polymer phases visible in their cross section.
MULTICOMPONENT FIBER
3 CELLULOSIC FIBERS
RAYON AND ACETATE
CARBON FIBERS
FILMS
CELLULOSIC FIBER:
● A huge, indeterminate number of glucose units make up the cellulose molecule (C6H9O4OH)x.
RAYON AND ACETATE
Viscose Rayon Manufacturing Process:
- Steeping (Alkali cellulose)
- Shredding
- Ageing (Depolymerization)
- Xanthation
- Disoolution
- Blending, Ripening, Filtration, Dearation
- Spinning
- Neutralization, Purification, Finishing
- Drying
- Winding
CELLULOSIC FIBER:
● One can make pitch, rayon, or polyacrylonitrile (PAN) into high-modulus ___.
CARBON FIBERS
Carbon Fibers Manufacturing Process
- Propylene
- Acylonitrile
- PAN Precursor
- Oxidation (200-300 degC)
- Carbonization (700-1500 degC)
- Carbon Fiber
CELLULOSIC FIBER:
● Cellulose nitrate was the first successful plastic film material.
● The primacy of cellulose was first threatened by the development of polyethylene.
● Melting the polymer and extruding it results in the production of polyethylene films. either blow extrusion or slit-die.
FILMS
The first successful plastic film material.
Cellulose nitrate
DMDHEU
Dimethyl dihydroxy ethylene urea
DRYING AND FINISHING OF TEXTILES
● FINISHING
● MECHANICAL FINISHING
● SANFORIZING
● CALENDERING
● SANDING
● EMBOSSING
● HEAT-SETTING
● BRUSHING
● SUEDING
DRYING AND FINISHING OF TEXTILES:
- Describes a fairly broad variety of treatments that
are typically carried out during the final
manufacturing step prior to fabrication.
- After manufacturing, some finishing may also be
carried out.
FINISHING
DRYING AND FINISHING OF TEXTILES:
- This kind of finishing entails methods that alter a
fabric’s texture or appearance without the use of
chemicals.
MECHANICAL FINISHING
DRYING AND FINISHING OF TEXTILES:
- In order to reduce shrinkage and produce a soft
hand, a cloth is overfed between a heated cylinder
and a rubber belt, followed by a heated cylinder
and an endless blanket.
SANFORIZING
DRYING AND FINISHING OF TEXTILES:
- Fabric is passed between big steel rollers using
pressures up to 100 tonnes throughout this
procedure.
CALENDERING
DRYING AND FINISHING OF TEXTILES:
- To modify the fabric’s surface and give it a softer
feel, fabric is fed over rolls covered in sand in this
procedure.
SANDING
DRYING AND FINISHING OF TEXTILES:
- Fabric is run through hot steel rollers that have
been engraved with a design that permanently
adheres to the fabric in this process.
EMBOSSING
DRYING AND FINISHING OF TEXTILES:
- This procedure involves passing synthetic
fabric—typically polyester—through a tenter frame
or a semi-contact heat-set machine at
temperatures high enough to start the fabric’s
molecular melting.
HEAT-SETTING
DRYING AND FINISHING OF TEXTILES:
- brushes rotating at high speeds are used to modify
the fabric’s hand and surface texture.
BRUSHING
DRYING AND FINISHING OF TEXTILES:
- The appearance and hand of the cloth are altered
by passing it between a smaller steel roller and a
larger roller covered in sandpaper.
SUEDING
● The latex-producing tree Hevea brasiliensis is its main
source.
● This tree requires approximately seven (7) to ten (10) years before it can produce a significant amount of latex for extraction.
● Hevea Latex contains 35% of rubber hydrocarbon with a pH of 6.5-7.0, displaying neutrality.
NATURAL RUBBER
The latex-producing tree ___ is the main source of natural rubbers.
Hevea brasiliensis
LATEX EXTRACTION
● Obtained by tapping the tree to allow the liquid to accumulate in containers that are collected frequently to avoid putrefaction
● NH3 is added as a preservative before the latex is processed to extract the rubber.
● The rubber then is separated from the liquid as a white, dough-like mass by coagulation.
● The extracted rubber is then milled and sheeted to remove contaminants to allow drying.
● Can be done using a two-roll mill or a mixer in which the rotors work the rubber against the walls of the mixer.
RUBBER SOFTENING
● Compounding materials such as carbon black (mainly for filler), sulfuric compounds (for vulcanization), accelerators, antioxidants, and oils are mixed with the rubber in the same mixer or rolls.
● Rubber is shaped into the desired product by extruding or molding before it undergoes the vulcanization process.
● Vulcanization leads to a cross-linked thermoset polymer that cannot be softened or melted by reheating to the original melting point.
RUBBER VULCANIZATION
2 MAIN TYPES OF SYNTHETIC RUBBER:
- Vulcanizable
- Non-vulcanizable
SYNTHETIC RUBBER:
● Produced by steam cracking of petroleum for ethylene manufacture.
BUTADIENE
Butadiene Chemical Formula
C4H6
SYNTHETIC RUBBER:
● The predominant way to produce this is via ethylbenzene. Ethylbenzene is made by alkylating benzene with ethylene and dehydrogenation to ___ over aluminum chloride, solid phosphoric acid, or silica-alumina catalyst.
STYRENE
Styrene Chemical Formula
C8H8
SYNTHETIC RUBBER:
● Made by the Sohio process.
● This process treats propylene with air and ammonia in a fluid-bed catalytic reactor.
● The effluent is scrubbed in a countercurrent absorber, and the resulting acrylonitrile is purified by fractionation.
ACRYLONITRILE
ACRYLONITRILE CHEMICAL FORMULA
CH2CHCN
SYNTHETIC RUBBER:
● Monomer from which neoprene is produced
● Product of the reaction of acetylene and hydrogen chloride. Acetylene is dimerized to mono-vinyl acetylene, and this compound is reacted with HCl to yield this product.
CHLOROPRENE
CHLOROPRENE CHEMICAL FORMULA
C4H5Cl
SYNTHETIC RUBBER:
● Recovered from refinery light-end operations, mainly by distillation
● Monomer for butyl rubber, along with isoprene
ISOBUTYLENE
ISOBUTYLENE CHEMICAL FORMULA
C4H8
ISOPRENE CHEMICAL FORMULA
C5H8
6 SYNTHETIC RUBBER
BUTADIENE
STYRENE
ACRYLONITRILE
CHLOROPRENE
ISOBUTYLENE
ISOPRENE
7 SYNTHETIC RUBBER
BUTADIENE
STYRENE
ACRYLONITRILE
CHLOROPRENE
ISOBUTYLENE
ISOPRENE
ETHYLENE AND PROPYLENE
3 Main Types of Reaction of Isoprene:
Reaction A : Produces isoprene from propylene
Reaction B : Produces isoprene from isobutylene and formaldehyde
Reaction C : Utilizes acetylene and acetone
● These compounds are readily available from refinery light-end cuts, or sometimes from steam cracking of propane or heavier fractions.
ETHYLENE AND PROPYLENE
● These compounds are readily available from refinery light-end cuts, or sometimes from steam cracking of propane or heavier fractions.
ETHYLENE AND PROPYLENE
ETHYLENE CHEMICAL FORMULA
C2H4
PROPYLENE CHEMICAL FORMULA
C3H6
● 50% butadiene
● Usual monomer ratio: 70/30 or 75/25- tanan favoring butadiene
● If ang styrene content na gale kay muincrease up to 50%, mahimo na syang plastic.
Styrene-butadiene Rubber (SBR)
Differences between SBR ug NR (Natural Rubber):
● SBR does not crystallize when stretched (weaker sad sya kaysa NR)
● The vulcanization properties of SBR are better than NR, especially at higher temperatures, and its aging characteristics are satisfactory.
Styrene-butadiene Rubber (SBR) Production Process
- Emulsion Polymerization
● Styrene and Butadiene monomers are mixed with water and emulsifiers and are polymerized using a free radical initiator. - Coagulation
● After polymerization, the latex is destabilized by the addition of an electrolyte or an acid to cause the polymer particles to coagulate into a solid mass. - Washing
● The coagulated mass is then washed several times to remove impurities and residual monomers. - Drying
● The washed polymer is dried, as the name of the process suggests tsk tsk and then cut into small pieces called crumb rubber. - Compounding
● The crumb rubbers are then mixed with various additives. - Vulcanization
● The rubber compound is then heated with sulfur or other vulcanizing agents to induce crosslinking in the polymer chains and form a three-dimensional (3D) network, which is responsible for the elastic properties of rubbers. - Finishing
● Finally, the vulcanized rubber is formed into various sheets para ibaligya na.
● Copolymer of butadiene and acrylonitrile
● Increasing nitrile content- increases the resistance to hydrocarbons, solvents, abrasions, and gas permeation
● Decreasing the nitrile content increases resilience at low temperatures
● Same lang na emulsion polymerization na process ang gamiton para mahimo ug nitrile rubber
NITRILE RUBBER (NBR)
● Referred to as polychloroprene as it is prepared by emulsion polymerization of purified chloroprene at 38°C in the presence of sulfur.
Neoprene
- resistant to oxidation, oil, and heat,
flame resistant
Neoprene rubbers
● A polysulfide type of rubber
● Prepared by the condensation polymerization of an alkaline polysulfide with a suitable organic dihalide
Thiokol
● Product of the polymerization of various silanes and siloxanes
● Useful for high-temperature applications
Silicone Rubbers
Silicone Rubbers Production Process
- Raw material preparation
● Raw materials- silicone fluids, silica fillers, cross-linking agents, and fillers - Mixing and milling
● These raw materials are then mixed and milled to create a uniform and homogeneous compound. - Extrusion
● The milled compound is then extruded into long strips or sheets. Extrusion involves forcing the compound through a die to form a continuous shape of the desired cross-section. - Vulcanization
● The extruded silicone rubber is then vulcanized or cured to achieve its final physical properties. - Finishing
● The vulcanized silicone rubber is then cut and finished to the desired shape and size by compression molding and the likes (THE END!)
● Copolymer of isobutylene with about 2% isoprene
● Extremely low permeability to gases and its major use is in inner tubes and in linings for tubeless tires
BUTYL RUBBER
BUTYL RUBBER PRODUCTION STEPS:
- Polymerization
● Isobutylene is polymerized with the addition of small amounts of isoprene in a reactor vessel. Catalysts should be added to initiate the reaction, resulting to a polymer in a viscous liquid state 11 - Purification
● The polymer is purified to remove impurities such as water, unreacted monomers, and catalyst residues mainly through distillation and filtration steps. - Mixing and Extrusion
● The purified polymer is mixed with other ingredients such as reinforcing agents, plasticizers, and curing agents to form a compound. The mixture is then extruded into sheets or strips. - Curing
● The extruded sheets or strips are then cured under heat and pressure to crosslink the polymer chains and improve the mechanical properties of the product. - Finishing
● The cured sheets or strips are then cut, shaped, and designed with respect to the desired size and specifications.
● Results from the free-radical catalyzed reaction of chlorine and SO2 with polyethylene, transforming the thermoplastic polyethylene into a vulcanizable elastomer
HYPALON
● Polyisoprene- the catalysts of Ziegler-Natta (Alkyl lithium)
type when isoprene is polymerized.
● The production of polybutadiene (much greater quantities
lang ni iyang production kay forda cheap or low cost lang
man) is the same polymerization process used in SBR plants,
with the presence of Ziegler-Natta catalysts
POLYISOPRENE AND POLYBUTADIENE
● Polyisoprene- the catalysts of Ziegler-Natta (Alkyl lithium) type when isoprene is polymerized.
● The production of polybutadiene (much greater quantities lang ni iyang production kay forda cheap or low cost lang man) is the same polymerization process used in SBR plants, with the presence of Ziegler-Natta catalysts
- the catalysts of Ziegler-Natta (Alkyl lithium)
type when isoprene is polymerized.
Polyisoprene
● Widely used to produce Ethylene-propylene diene monomer (EPDM) rubbers
ETHYLENE-PROPYLENE POLYMERS AND TERPOLYMERS
ETHYLENE-PROPYLENE POLYMERS AND TERPOLYMERS PRODUCTION PROCESS
● Ethylene, propylene, and a diene monomer are fed into a reactor vessel.
● The monomers are polymerized under specific temperature and pressure, along with a specified catalyst concentration to produce a molten EPDM polymer.
● The molten EPDM is cooled and pelletized.
● The pellets are then washed and dried to remove any residual catalysts or impurities.
● The EPDM pellets are then compounded with various additives before being vulcanized.
● The compounded EPDM is then shaped by compression molding or extrusion and is vulcanized with sulfur compounds.
9 SYNTHETIC RUBBER POLYMERIZATION PRODUCTS
Styrene-butadiene Rubber (SBR)
NITRILE RUBBER (NBR)
Neoprene
Thiokol
Silicone Rubbers
BUTYL RUBBER
HYPALON
POLYISOPRENE AND POLYBUTADIENE
ETHYLENE-PROPYLENE POLYMERS AND TERPOLYMERS
5 RUBBER COMPOUNDING
- Vulcanizing Agents
- ACCELERATORS
- AGE RESISTORS
- CATALYTIC PLASTICIZERS
- INERT FILING MATERIALS
RUBBER COMPOUNDING:
● Usually sulfur compounds that react with the polymer to produce a cross-linked material that could have mono-, di-, or polysulfide bonds
Vulcanizing Agents
RUBBER COMPOUNDING:
● Reduce the time required for vulcanization
ACCELERATORS
RUBBER COMPOUNDING:
● Also called antioxidants
● They protect rubber goods from oxygen and ozone attacks in the atmosphere
AGE RESISTORS
RUBBER COMPOUNDING:
● Also called peptizers, they serve to reduce the viscosity of rubber to permit easier processing.
CATALYTIC PLASTICIZERS
RUBBER COMPOUNDING:
● Large amounts of fillers may be added to rubber to simply harden the structure or reinforcement (e.g., carbon black or silica- known as reinforcing agents)
INERT FILING MATERIALS
- the behavior and interaction of the polymer and other additives during the various processing stages
Processibility
- Blowing agents are used to create a sponge structure within the rubber matrix during the curing process.
Sponge Structure
RUBBER FABRICATION
Calendering
- involves rolling the rubber compound into the fabric on multi-roll calender machines
Molding
- curing the compound in the mold by vulcanization
Extruding
- utilizes an extrusion machine that forces rubber through a shaped die using high levels of pressure
- “Crude oil” , “rock oil”
- mixture of hundreds of hydrocarbon compounds ranging from methane that contains only one carbon atom, to larger compound complexes with 300 or more carbon atoms
- Created from organic materials near the shore and in marine deposits that are low in oxygen and associated with minerals that were changed by time and pressure
PETROLEUM
4 Constituents of Petroleum
● Heteroatom compounds - Sulfur, Nitrogen, Oxygen (SuNO)
● Hydrocarbons- Carbon, Hydrogen (Mao ni pinakadaghan naa- 97% tapos 83-87% Carbon and 12-14% Hydrogen)
● Organic compounds- Nickel, Vanadium, and Iron
● Inorganic- Sodium, Calcium, and Chlorine
- result of the decomposition of organic materials
Fossil fuel petroleum
2 TYPES OF HYDROCARBONS
Aliphatic Compounds (Open Chain Hydrocarbons)
Aromatic Hydrocarbons, or Benzenoid Series (CnH2n−6)
3 Aliphatic Compounds (Open Chain Hydrocarbons)
- Paraffin
- Olefin or Alkene Series (CnH2n)
- Naphthene (Cycloalkanes Series)
2 Types of Paraffin
● N-Paraffin Series or Alkanes (CnH2n+2)
● Iso-paraffin Series or Iso-alkanes (CnH2n+2)
- saturated alkanes
Paraffin
Main Disadvantage of N-Paraffin Series or Alkanes (CnH2n+2)
★ Poor antiknock properties
- ineffective in eliminating engine knocking nor increasing the octane rating of the gasoline by increasing the temperature and pressure at which auto-ignition occurs.
- largest alkane sa petroleum
Octaheptacontane
Octaheptacontane Chemical Formula
C78H158
★ Main forms of iso-alkanes are monomethyl-branched, with the branches arbitrarily positioned in the chains, and dimethyl-branched, with one of the methyl groups primarily at the second position in the chains
Examples:
● 2- and 3-methyl pentanes,
● 2,3- dimethyl pentane
● 2-methyl hexane
Iso-paraffin Series or Iso-alkanes (CnH2n+2)
● Manufactured by cracking (smaller molecules are produced from larger ones)
● Synthetically made and is not found naturally in oil or natural gas
● Increase the antiknock quality of gasoline bahalag dili kaayo sya effective compared sa iso-paraffins kay unstable man
Disadvantage:
● Polymerize and oxidize during storage
Examples:
ethylene, propylene, and butylene
Olefin or Alkene Series (CnH2n)
● Same chemical formula as olefins but lacks their instability and reactivity due to their molecular arrangement allowing them to be saturated and unreactive like alkanes
Examples:
● metallacyclopentene
● Methylcyclohexane
Naphthene (Cycloalkanes Series)
- unsaturated cyclic hydrocarbons with alternating
double bonds.
Aromatics
- most basic aromatic hydrocarbon
- Gitawag syag aromatics since they are frequently fragrant.
Benzene
Benzene Chemical Formula
C6H6
3 BASIC STEPS OF REFINERY:
- SEPARATION PROCESS
- CONVERSION
- TREATMENT
- pretreatment process; washing crude oil with water and caustic potash (NaOH) so that the salts can be neutralized and washed out of the organic phase.
- If salt is not removed, the high temperatures present during crude oil refining may promote water hydrolysis,
allowing the creation of hydrochloric acid (HCl) and causing severe corrosion problems in the equipment.
Desalting
The liquids and vapors in the distillation units split into
petroleum components called ___ based on their
boiling points.
fractions
8 Unit Operations Used in Separative Section:
- Fluid Flow- must not allow for any unexpected failure that fire and explosion may cause.
- Heat Transfer
- Distillation
- Absorption. It is commonly used to separate high-boiler gases. Natural gasoline is absorbed from wet gases using gas oil.
- Adsorption- employed in the recovery of heavy materials from gases.
- Filtration. It is used to extract wax precipitated from distillates containing the wax.
- Crystallization. Waxes must be crystallized into suitable-sized crystals before filtration by cooling and stirring. Undesirable waxes in lubes are removed and transformed into commercial microcrystalline waxes.
- Extraction. It is the selective dissolution of a component in a liquid.
BASIC STEP OF REFINERY:
● Fractions from the distillation units are converted into streams (intermediate components)
● Components such as residual oils, fuel oils, and light ends are converted to gasoline and other light fractions to meet the need for high-octane gasoline, jet fuel, and diesel fuel
● Coking, visbreaking process and cracking
- Most common conversion methods
● Smaller petroleum molecules are combined into larger ones through polymerization and alkylation processes.
● Cracking- uses heat, pressure, catalysts, and sometimes hydrogen to break heavy hydrocarbon molecules into lighter ones.
CONVERSION
TWO TYPES OF CONVERSION AS BASIC STEPS OF REFINERY:
● Coking, visbreaking process and cracking
- Most common conversion methods
● Cracking- uses heat, pressure, catalysts, and sometimes hydrogen to break heavy hydrocarbon molecules into lighter ones.
- uses heat, pressure, catalysts, and sometimes hydrogen to break heavy hydrocarbon molecules into lighter ones.
Cracking
8 Important Basic Reactions of Conversion as Basic Steps of Refinery:
- Cracking, or pyrolysis
- Polymerization
- Alkylation
- Hydrogenation
- Hydrocracking
- Isomerization
- Reforming, or aromatization
- Esterification and hydration
Important Basic Reaction of Conversion as Basic Steps of Refinery:
- combining of similar molecules that connects the light olefins gases including ethylene, propylene, and butylene into hydrocarbons of higher molecular weight and higher-octane number that can be used as gasoline blending stocks.
Polymerization
Important Basic Reaction of Conversion as Basic Steps of Refinery:
- The reaction between an olefin and an aromatic or paraffinic hydrocarbon.
- It is a process for the production of high-octane motor fuel components by the combination of olefins and paraffin.
Alkylation
Important Basic Reaction of Conversion as Basic Steps of Refinery:
- addition of hydrogen to an olefin
Hydrogenation
Important Basic Reaction of Conversion as Basic Steps of Refinery:
- This process takes gas oil, which is heavier and has a higher boiling range, and cracks the heavy molecules into distillate and gasoline in the presence of hydrogen and a catalyst.
Hydrocracking
Important Basic Reaction of Conversion as Basic Steps of Refinery:
- change in the arrangement of atoms in a molecule without changing the number of atoms
Isomerization
Important Basic Reaction of Conversion as Basic Steps of Refinery:
- converting naphtha into products with a higher-octane number.
- similar to cracking, but with more volatile charge stocks
Reforming, or aromatization
Important Basic Reaction of Conversion as Basic Steps of Refinery:
- reaction of an alcohol with a specified oil in the presence of an acid catalyst
Esterification and hydration
BASIC STEP OF REFINERY:
● Refinery technicians meticulously blend several streams from the processing units to generate gasoline.
● Petroleum treatment procedures improve and stabilize petroleum products by isolating them from less desired products and removing unwanted constituents.
TREATMENT
The variables that commonly dictate the treatment used are the___ and the ___.
The variables that commonly dictate the treatment used are the removal of sulfur and the improvement of stability.
Sulfur can be decreased via:
(1) hydrogenation, which eliminates metals and nitrogen,
(2) caustic soda treatment,
(3) caustic soda treatment plus a catalyst, and
(4) ethanolamine treatment.
- large group of chemicals generated from petroleum and natural gas which is currently in commercial and/or industrial use.
Petrochemicals
2 CLASSIFICATIONS OF PETROCHEMICALS
- Primary
- Intermediate
CLASSIFICATIONS OF PETROCHEMICALS:
● Direct results from processes with the raw feed
● Includes: olefins (ethylene, propylene, and butadiene), aromatics (benzene, toluene, and xylenes), and methanol.
Primary
CLASSIFICATIONS OF PETROCHEMICALS:
● Petrochemical products that have undergone numerous processes derived from primary petrochemicals.
Intermediate
Intermediates may be classified as
aliphatic, aromatic, inorganic compounds, or synthesis gas
- any renewable, biological material that can be used directly as a fuel, or converted to another form of fuel or energy product.
Feedstock
4 PRIMARY PETROCHEMICALS
METHANE
ETHYLENE
PROPYLENE
N-Butylene
9 Products or chemicals that can be derived from methane:
- Methane (CH4)
- Carbon disulfide (CS2)
- Ethylene
- Hydrogen Cyanide
- Chloromethanes
- Synthesis Gas
- Urea (CH4N2O)
- Methanol
- Formaldehyde
Product or chemical that can be derived from methane:
❖ Colorless and odorless gas that burns easily
Methane (CH4)
- hydrogen and carbon monoxide is reacted in a catalytic reactor to form methane and water.
Methanation
Methane Chemical Formula
CH4
Carbon disulfide Chemical Formula
CS2
Carbon disulfide Production process
Starts by vaporizing pure sulfur and reacting it with methane in a reactor with activated alumina or clay as a catalyst
Product or chemical that can be derived from methane:
❖ Mainly produced by naphtha cracking and steam cracking of ethane
❖ Very reactive intermediate, courtesy to its carbon-carbon double bond which is a place of high electron density
Ethylene
Product or chemical that can be derived from methane:
❖ Produced through the Andrussaw process which involves the reaction of ammonia, methane, and air over a platinum catalyst
❖ Used in the production of different chemical products which include acrylonitrile, methyl methacrylates, adiponitrile, and sodium cyanide
Hydrogen Cyanide
Product or chemical that can be derived from methane:
❖ Produced by the chlorination of methane
Chloromethanes
Product or chemical that can be derived from methane:
❖ Derived from methane primarily by the steam reforming process
Synthesis Gas
Product or chemical that can be derived from methane:
❖ Chemical that is further down the line in the methane derived products
Urea (CH4N2O)
Urea Chemical Formula
CH4N2O
Product or chemical that can be derived from methane:
❖ The production of methanol was traditionally from the destructive distillation of wood from charcoal production.
Methanol
Product or chemical that can be derived from methane:
❖ Production of formaldehyde is through catalytic reaction of methanol with air
Formaldehyde
9 Products or chemicals that can be derived from Ethylene
- Ethylene
- Ethanol
- Ethylene Glycol
- Ethylbenzene
- Ethyl Chloride
- Ethylene Dichloride
- Vinyl chloride
- Acetaldehyde
- Polyethylene
Product or chemical that can be derived from ethylene:
- most basic olefin is a colorless gas with a sweet odor
- manufacture of ethylene is mainly done via the steam cracking process of hydrocarbons
Ethylene
Product or chemical that can be derived from ethylene:
- Produced by hydration of ethylene
- Ethylene and water are reacted over phosphoric acid under the presence of a catalyst
Ethanol
Product or chemical that can be derived from ethylene:
- Ethylene is first oxidized in a catalyzed reactor to produce ethylene oxide via a silver catalyst. Ethylene oxide is then hydrolyzed at 100 degC to produce this.
Ethylene Glycol
Product or chemical that can be derived from ethylene:
- Produced by the alkylation of benzene using ethylene with the presence of Friedel-Crafts type catalysts.
Ethylbenzene
Product or chemical that can be derived from ethylene:
- produced by the reaction of ethylene with hydrogen chloride
Ethyl Chloride
Product or chemical that can be derived from ethylene:
- produced by the halogenation process via chlorine
Ethylene Dichloride
Product or chemical that can be derived from ethylene:
- important monomer for the production of polyvinyl chloride and other resins, a vital thermoplastic used for commercial applications
Vinyl chloride
Product or chemical that can be derived from ethylene:
- intermediate of various petrochemical compounds such as, polyacetaldehyde, pentaerythritol, n butanol, and the humble acetic acid
Acetaldehyde
Product or chemical that can be derived from ethylene:
- produced by the polymerization reaction of ethylene under pressures of 1500-3000 psi and at 100-120oC with the presence of a catalyst that acts as an initiator
Polyethylene
- unsaturated hydrocarbon with its double bond in its molecular structure
PROPYLENE
10 Products or chemicals that can be derived from propylene:
oducts or chemicals that can be derived from propylene:
1. Acrolein
2. Acrylonitrile
3. Propylene oxide
4. Propylene glycol
5. Allyl alcohol
6. Glycerol
7. Allyl acetate
8. Allyl chloride
9. Acetone
10. Cumene
- series of alkene derivatives with four carbon atoms containing a double bond
N-Butylene
Products or chemicals from butylene:
- Methyl Ethyl Ketone
- Sec-Butyl Alcohol
- Acetic Acid
- Butadiene
- a specific reactive C4 olefin and unlike its isomers, the n butylene, the structure of isobutylene is specific to the compound
ISO-BUTYLENE PETROCHEMICALS
- chemicals derived from aromatic primary hydrocarbons such as benzene, toluene, xylene isomers, and ethylbenzene
AROMATIC PETROCHEMICALS
7 Lowkey Petrochemicals lang:
- Ammonia
- Carbon black
- Carbon dioxide and monoxide
- Hydrogen
- Nitric Acid
- Sulfur
- Sulfuric Acid
18 PETROCHEMICAL PROCESSES
● Alkylation
● Dealkylation
● Hydrodealkylation
● Cracking or Pyrolysis
● Dehydration
● Esterification
● Halogenation
● Hydrohalogenation
● Chlorination
● Oligomerization
● Hydration
● Hydrolysis
● Hydrogenation
● Nitration
● Amination
● Oxidation
● Hydroformylation (the OXO-reaction)
● Polymerization
PETROCHEMICAL PROCESS:
- transfer of an alkyl group from one molecule to
another
Alkylation
PETROCHEMICAL PROCESS:
- Removal of alkyl groups
Dealkylation
PETROCHEMICAL PROCESS:
- Addition of hydrogen sa alkylation process
Hydrodealkylation
PETROCHEMICAL PROCESS:
- chemical process by which water is removed from a chemical compound may it be courtesy of synthesis reactions where two organic compounds are combined to form a larger molecule at the expense of a water molecule or just the removal of a hydroxyl group from the organic compound.
Dehydration
PETROCHEMICAL PROCESS:
- a hydroxyl group of the alcohol reacts with a carboxyl group from an acid to form the ester linkage and water.
Esterification
2 Types of Esterification
★ Inorganic Esterification
★ Organic Esterification
PETROCHEMICAL PROCESS:
- a halogen (fluorine, bromine, chlorine, iodine) is added to a hydrocarbon compound
Halogenation
PETROCHEMICAL PROCESS:
- involves the use of a hydrogen-attached halogen (HCl, HF, HBr, HI) to attach the halogen in the organic backbone
Hydrohalogenation
PETROCHEMICAL PROCESS:
- involves the addition of chlorine to a hydrocarbon to form halogenated products
Chlorination
PETROCHEMICAL PROCESS:
- combines olefin molecules to produce an olefin dimer or trimer
Oligomerization
PETROCHEMICAL PROCESS:
- the water molecule is used to attach a hydroxyl group in the hydrocarbon backbone
Hydration
PETROCHEMICAL PROCESS:
- the water molecule is used to split a hydrocarbon chain capping a hydrogen molecule to one molecule and a hydroxyl group on the other again forming an alcohol
Hydrolysis
PETROCHEMICAL PROCESS:
- mainly involves the addition or removal of a certain element to the structure of a petroleum compound, in this case.
Hydrogenation
PETROCHEMICAL PROCESS:
- chemical process that involves the addition of a nitro group to the chemical structure of a hydrocarbon feed.
- converting unreactive paraffins into very reactive chemical substances without the process of cracking.
Nitration
PETROCHEMICAL PROCESS:
- involves the reaction of ammonia to form both aliphatic and aromatic amines.
Amination
PETROCHEMICAL PROCESS:
- generally aimed for replacing C-C and C-H bonds with C-O bonds to form different chemical compounds.
Oxidation
PETROCHEMICAL PROCESS:
- converting olefins to aldehydes and/or alcohols containing an additional carbon atom.
Hydroformylation (the OXO-reaction)
PETROCHEMICAL PROCESS:
- combination of different small building blocks (monomers) to produce long chains of hydrocarbons.
Polymerization
2 PHARMACEUTICAL PRODUCTS CLASSIFICATION
● Classification by chemical synthesis - based on specific chemical reactions to obtain them.
● Classification by other methods - Some drugs can be produced without the need for artificial synthesis and/or without undergoing synthetic chemical synthesis.
PHARMACEUTICAL DRUGS PRODUCTION
- Drug production by chemical synthesis
- Drug production by Extraction
- Drug production by Fermentation
- Drug production by Genetic Engineering
PHARMACEUTICAL DRUGS PRODUCTION:
➔ usually used to manufacture low-molar weight drugs in huge batches quickly.
Drug production by chemical synthesis
3 Drug production by chemical synthesis
● Alkylation
● CARBOXYLATION AND ACETYLATION
● CONDENSATION AND CYCLIZATION
Drug production by chemical synthesis:
- adding or substituting an alkyl group to an organic substrate
Alkylation
- alkane molecules without hydrogen atoms
Alkyl groups
2 drugs produced through the method of alkylation:
Phenobarbital USP
Barbital
- effective for treating status epilepticus, anti-seizure management, sleeplessness, and benzodiazepine and alcohol withdrawal.
- produced through the alkylation of the malonic ester with diethyl sulfate or ethyl bromide.
Phenobarbital USP
- a long-acting barbiturate that slows down most metabolic functions when used in large doses
- derived through the alkylation and condensation of Diethyl Malonate
Barbital
- important process in pharmaceuticals, particularly in the synthesis of carboxylic acid-based drugs
- combination of an organic compound with carbon monoxide and carbonylation refers to reactions that introduce carbon monoxide into organic and inorganic compounds
Carboxylation
- a process by which an acetyl functional group (-CH3CO) binds into an organic compound to create various drugs such as acetaminophen, commonly known as paracetamol.
Acetylation
Products produced in Carboxylation and Acetylation:
- Salicylic Acid
- Acetaminophen
- Also known as “paracetamol”
- Works by blocking the production of certain chemicals in the brain that cause pain and fever.
Acetaminophen
- Different molecules binding together through ring
closure to cause cyclization
CONDENSATION AND CYCLIZATION
Products produced from Condensation and Cylcization:
- Diazepam USP
- Piperazine Citrate
- made through a series of complex chemical reactions, which involve cyclization
Diazepam USP
- synthesized through the cyclization of dichloroethane and ethanediamine with alcoholic ammonia.
Piperazine Citrate
- effective in separating and purifying compounds of interest in the raw materials and mixtures.
Solvent Extraction
4 Medicines extracted from plants through the use of solvent extraction:
★ Reserpine USP
★ Insulin Injection
★ Cocaine Hydrochloride
★ Vinca Rosea Alkaloids
- extracted from the African root Rauwolfia Vomitaria using boiling methanols as a solvent
- then further extracted by using ethylene dichloride, which is then neutralized by disodium carbonate and further evaporated to separate the solvent
Reserpine USP
- traditional insulin is extracted from cow or pig pancreas using acidified alcohol.
Insulin Injection
- extracted from the Erythroxylum Coca plant and is usually carried out using a solvent such as kerosene and a dilute acid solution.
Cocaine Hydrochloride
- drugs obtained from the extraction of the Catharanthus Roseus plant.
Vinca Rosea Alkaloids
TRUE OR FALSE
Dr. Alexander Fleming accidentally discovered penicillin, the first true antibiotic in 1928, after he discovered that mold growing around his bacterium culture was producing juices killing off the bacteria.
TRUE
Fermentation Process of Antibiotics
- Media reparation
-Medium usually contain its carbon source which is found in corn steep liquor and glucose. - Heat Sterilization
-Medium is sterilized at high heat and high pressure. - Fermentation
- Fermentation done in the fed-batch mode. Penicillin is the secondary metabolite of the fungus, so the feed bathc mode is ideal as it allows high production of penicillin. Temperature: 20-24 deg C. pH:6.0-6.5 - CULTURE
-The seed culture is developed by addition of Penicillium spores into a liuid medium. When it was grown up to an acceptable amount, it will be inoculated into the fermenter.
Biomass Removal
-Rotary vacuum filter is commonly used to do this. To maintain the pH between 6.0-6.5 phosphoric acid is added as the pH will be high up to 8.5.
- Solvent Addition
- To dissolve the penicillin in the filtrate organic solvent butyl acetate is added. - Centrifugal Extraction
- This is done to separate the solid waste from the liquid solution containting penicillin. - Drying
- Drying is necessary to completely remove the moisture content from the pencillin salt.
- used to treat many bacterial infections
Penicillin
It has made it possible for us to mass produce ethically produced insulin without the need to extract from tons of livestock pancreas, the development of vaccines.
Genetic engineering
● Today, most of our insulin comes from recombinant DNA technology, in which scientists placed a human insulin gene on a bacterium’s genetic material, where the bacterium could now produce the protein since it has the genetic makeup to produce it.
● The bacterium is then fermented so that the bacterium multiplies and produces the insulin hormone.
Insulin from recombinant DNA technology
