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2ND LONG QUIZ Flashcards

1
Q

Define Phosphate Rock

A

Accumulated natural minerals that contain high percentages of phosphate at least 15-20 percent phosphate by weight

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2
Q

Define Apatite

A

Calcium phosphate minerals which is the main source of phosphorus

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3
Q

2 Reasons Why Phosphorus is used in Fertilizer Industry

A
  1. It is highly soluble in water, which means that plants can absorb it quickly and efficiently.
  2. Phosphorus is relatively immobile in soil, so it doesn’t leach out easily, making it available for plant uptake over an extended period.
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4
Q

Common Name for Fluorapatite and its Chemical Formula

A

Domestic Rocks, Ca₅(PO₄)₃F

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5
Q

2 Phosphate-Rock Processing

A
  1. Acidulation
  2. Electric-furnace Reduction
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6
Q

Define Acidulation

A
  • process used to produce phosphoric acid,
    which is an essential ingredient in the
    production of fertilizers.
  • phosphate rock is treated with sulfuric
    acid to produce a water-soluble form of
    phosphoric acid.
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7
Q

Define Electric-furnace Reduction

A
  • to produce elemental phosphorus from
    phosphate rock.
  • heating phosphate rock in an electric
    furnace in the presence of carbon, which
    reduces the phosphate rock to elemental
    phosphorus gas.
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8
Q

3 Raw Materials for Diammonium Phosphate (DAP Fertilizer) Production

A
  1. Phosphate rock
  2. Elemental sulfur
  3. Ammonia
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9
Q

Composition of Normal Superphosphates

A

16-20% P2O5

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10
Q

Composition of Triple Superphosphates

A

45-50% P2O5

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11
Q

Compare 2 Types of Triple Superphosphates

A
  1. Nongranular superphosphates
    - produced by a conveyor belt and a cone-mixer
  2. Granular superphosphates
    - mixing phosphate rock with phosphoric acid with a two-stage reactor.
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12
Q

Wet-Process Phosphoric Acid (4)

A

Process:
● Raw phosphate rocks kay sagolan ug sulfuric acid for about 1.5 to 12 hrs.
● Then, ipainit sya usually around 200-250°C to aid the reaction between sa sulfuric acid ug sa phosphate rocks.
● The reaction produces a slurry of phosphoric acid, along with calcium sulfate (gypsum) and other impurities.
● The slurry is then sent to a series of filtration and purification steps to remove the impurities and concentrate the phosphoric acid.

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13
Q

Uranium Extraction Concept

A
  • Crucial step kay uranium is a radioactive element thus, kailangan sya iremove
  • Phosphate rocks also contain significant amounts of uranium. During the reaction between the phosphate rock and sulfuric acid in the wet process, the uranium present in the phosphate rock is dissolved along with the other metals and impurities.
  • The resulting slurry is then sent to a series of filtration and purification steps to remove the impurities and concentrate the phosphoric acid.
  • Usually, solvent extraction ang gina-use daw para maremove ang mga dissolved impurities. Solvent, such as tributyl phosphate, kay ginaextract niya ang phosphoric acid from the slurry, leaving behind all other impurities such as uranium.
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14
Q

3 Allotropes of Phosphorus

A
  1. White Phosphorus- extremely poisonous tapos will burst into flames once it is exposed sa oxygen sa air
  2. Black Phosphorus
  3. Red Phosphorus
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15
Q

Electric – Furnace Phosphorus and Phosphoric Acid Steps (3)

A

Steps:
1. The phosphate rock is typically ground and screened to the desired size and purity.
2. The phosphate rock is fed into the electric furnace, where it is mixed with coke and heated to very high temperatures. The heat causes the reduction of the phosphate rock, releasing elemental phosphorus gas, which is then collected in a condenser.
3. The elemental phosphorus collected in the condenser is then purified using a series of distillation and filtration steps to remove impurities and obtain high-purity phosphorus.

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16
Q

Orthophosphoric Acid Chemical Formula

A

H3PO4

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17
Q

Define Briquetting

A

Compacting loose materials, such as powders, fibers, and chips, into solid blocks or briquettes using pressure.

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18
Q

3 Types of Phosphates

A
  1. Sodium Phosphates
  2. Pyrophosphates
  3. Calcium Phosphates
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19
Q

Compare 3 Types of Sodium Phosphates

A
  1. Monosodium phosphate: NaH2PO4
  2. Disodium phosphate: Na2HPO4
  3. Trisodium phosphate: Na₃PO₄

The monosodium phosphate and disodium phosphate kay produced by reacting phosphoric acid with soda ash while ang trisodium kay with the use of caustic soda na.

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19
Q

Compare 3 Types of Sodium Phosphates

A
  1. Monosodium phosphate: NaH2PO4
  2. Disodium phosphate: Na2HPO4
  3. Trisodium phosphate: Na₃PO₄

The monosodium phosphate and disodium phosphate kay produced by reacting phosphoric acid with soda ash while ang trisodium phosphate kay with the use of caustic soda na.

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20
Q

Define Pyrophosphates

A

Virtue of suppressing the precipitation of
calcium carbonate

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21
Q

Define Calcium Phosphates

A

Naturally occurring bone minerals, they
are osteoinductive (stimulate the formation
of new bone tissue

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22
Q

Define Tetrasodium pyrophosphate (TSPP) and give its chemical formula

A

(Na4P2O7) is a chemical compound that is used in soap and detergent as well as to soften water.

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23
Q

3 Types of Calcium Phosphates

A

● Monobasic calcium phosphate, Ca(H2PO4)2
● Dibasic calcium phosphate, CaHPO4
● Calcium metaphosphate, Ca(PO3)2

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24
Q

Baking powders

A

It is made up of dry mixture of sodium
bicarbonate and one or more agents that can totally decompose it (usually monocalcium phosphates)

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25
Q

Flame Retardants Chemicals

A

Prevent or delay the spread of fire by suppressing chemical processes in the flame or by forming a protective layer on a material’s surface

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26
Q

6 Principal Potash Minerals

A
  1. Sylvite: KCl
  2. Carnallite: KCl. MgCl2·6(H2O)
  3. Kainite: KClMgSO4·2.75H2O
  4. Langbeinite: K2Mg2(SO4)3
  5. Halite: NaCl
  6. Kieserite: MgSO4·H2O
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27
Q

Potassium Chloride in Fertilizer Industry

A
  • Muriate of Potash (MOP): 97% purity
  • Chemical grade potassium chloride: 99.9% purity
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28
Q

2 Production Process of Potassium Chloride

A
  1. Trona Process
  2. Froth Flotation
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29
Q

Trona Process (5)

A

● Brine is pumped from wells drilled in the first and third layers of the lake utilizing
deep-well-type-pumps.
● The brine is pumped at a temperature of 72 deg F.
● Raw brine is used as the condensing medium for the potash vacuum coolers as well as for washing different filter cakes throughout the plant before it enters the evaporator.
● The evaporator feed consists of a mixture of brine from the lake and end liquors from the crystallizing house.
● The resulting concentrated solution is then
forwarded to the crystallizing plants for removal of potash, while the end liquor is sent back into the evaporator.

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30
Q

Define Froth Flotation

A

It is used to raise the low mineral
concentrations in ores to concentrations
that can be more economically processed.

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31
Q

5 Steps for Froth Flotation

A
  1. Crushing
    - the sylvinite ores are crushed through a 12.7-cm screen
  2. Scrubbing and Desliming
    - 90 to 95 wt% of the clay present in sylvinite ores are removed. The scrubbers are operated in series to ensure complete dispersion of the clay from the crystal
    surfaces to the brine as finely divided particles.
  3. Reagent Conditioning
    -the surface properties of mineral particles are modified using reagents to selectively separate them from the gangue (worthless material) based on their hydrophobicity or hydrophilicity.
    -involves adding specific chemicals to the slurry (a mixture of water and ore particles) to prepare it for flotation.
  4. Flotation
    -the slurry is then introduced into a flotation cell, where air is bubbled through the mixture. The air bubbles attach to the sylvite particles, making them float to the surface of the slurry, where they can be collected as a froth layer.
  5. Drying
    -the collected froth is then dried to remove the water and recover the KCl product.
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32
Q

Define Fractional Crystallization

A

Traditional method for refining KCl from ore deposits

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33
Q

2 Steps for Fractional Crystallization

A
  1. Crushed ores are heated to 100°C and then placed in a centrifuge para maseparate ang brine from the contaminants.
  2. The effluent (without the waste or mga contaminants chuchu) is sent to a crystallizer para of course macrystallize ang potassium chloride.
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34
Q

Define Potassium Sulfate and give its Chemical Formula and Production Process

A

(K2SO4)
- source of potassium in agriculture
-used for fertilizer for crops not tolerant to KCl

Production Process:
-Mannheim Process lang

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35
Q

Langbeinite Chemical Formula

A

K2SO4*2MgSO4

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36
Q

Define Potassium Bisulfate and give its Chemical Formula and Production Process

A

(KHSO4)
-strong acid salt mainly used as a flux (gi na add na substance to remove any impurities) for ceramics

Production Proccess:
* Reaction of potassium sulfate with sulfuric acid
* Mannheim process japon
* By-product sya sa production of nitric acid from potassium nitrate and sulfuric

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37
Q

Define Potassium Hydroxide and give its Chemical Formula and Production Process

A

(KOH)
- used for industrial water treatment
- “caustic potash”

Production Process:
* Produced industrially by the electrolysis of KCl

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38
Q

Define Potassium carbonate and give its Production Process

A
  • “pearl ash”

Production Process:
* Produced by the reaction of caustic potash with carbon dioxide.

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39
Q

Define Potassium Bromide and give its Chemical Formula and Production Process

A

(KBr)
- used as a veterinary drug and as an antiepileptic medication for dogs.

Production:
* Production of potassium bromate from potassium carbonate
* Treating iron

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40
Q

Ferrosoferric Bromide Chemical Formula

A

Fe3Br3*16H20

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41
Q

Define Potassium Iodide and give its Chemical Formula and Production Process

A

(KI)
- non-radioactive or stable form of iodine.
-used for treating patients with thyroid diseases.

Production:
* Same lang sa production process sa potassium bromide.
* Iodine reacts with potassium hydroxide

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42
Q

Define Potassium Nitrate and give its Chemical Formula and Production Process

A

(KNO3)
- “Indian saltpeter”
- bacterial action on human and animal excrement triggered its creation

Production:
* Earliest method: Simple boiling of the crude saltpeter
mineral with minimal water
* Reacting sodium nitrate with potassium chloride
* Reacting potassium chloride with nitric acid
Nitrosyl chloride: NOCl

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43
Q

Define Potassium Acid Tartrate (Bitartrate) and give its Chemical Formula and Production Process

A

(KC4H5O6)
- also known as “potassium hydrogen tartrate” or “cream of tartar”

  • Natural way: generated in grapes as a result of tartaric acid dissociation into bitartrate and tartrate ions.
  • Wine lees, solid substance nga mahibilin after crushing grapes to make wine, are treated with hot water para madissolve ang potassium bitartrate. Tapos ipaevaporate
    and then crystals are formed, then iextract tapos ipurify.
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44
Q

Define Potassium Permanganate and give its Chemical Formula and Production Process

A

(KMnO4)
- gives off an intense pink-to-purple solution
- strong oxidizing agent

Production:
* Manganese dioxide is fused with KOH and then painition and then ang result kay potassium MANGANATE.
* After that, potassium MANGANATE kay itransform into potassium PERMANGANATE through the electrolytic oxidation.

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45
Q

Define Potassium Dichromate and give its Chemical Formula and Production Process

A

(K2Cr2O7)
- also known as “potassium bichromate”
- all hexavalent chromium compounds that’s why this is detrimental to health.

Production:
* Produced by roasting caustic potash, quick lime, and chrome-iron ore
* From a chromite concentrate

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46
Q

Define Nitrogen

A

-odorless, non-toxic, tasteless, colorless, and
non-flammable gas
-“dephlogisticated air” due to its inert properties to many reactions
- would not support combustion of living organisms

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47
Q

What is Sal ammoniac

A

old name for ammonium chloride

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48
Q

Products when alchemists concocted two acids from saltpeter (niter or any of three naturally occurring nitrates):

A
  1. Aqua fortis- “nitric acid”, can dissolve most of the metals
  2. Aqua regia- “royal water”, a solution of nitrohydrochloric acid which can dissolve royal metals such as gold and platinum.
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49
Q

Define Nitrogen Fixation

A
  • a process that converts the unreactive gaseous nitrogen to its active nitrogen compounds.
  • focused on producing nitrogen oxides and ammonia
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50
Q

5 Nitrogen oxides

A

(1) Nitrous Oxide (N2O)
- “laughing gas” and has a sweet odor and taste
- used as an anesthetic and as propellant in aerosol cans

(2). Nitric Oxide (NO)
- water-insoluble, colorless gas that is produced in considerable quantities in the reaction to produce nitric acid.

(3) Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)
- a red brown gas with an unpleasant odor and is poisonous
-even though poisonous sya, ginaproduce japon sya na gas because when it combines readily with water, makaform syag nitric acid (an important industrial acid)

(4) Nitrogen Trioxide (N2O3) & (5) Nitrogen Pentoxide (N2O5)
- anhydrides of nitrous acid and nitric acid
- the process of producing these oxides is by reactingnitrogen and oxygen in air at very igh temperatures

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51
Q

General Manufacturing Process of Ammonia (8)

A
  1. The feed gases to the reactor are manufactured, purified and compressed.
  2. Natural gas is first fed into the desulfurizer wherein sulfur is removed from the gas in order to avoid external reactions.
  3. Steam is then added and it goes into the primary reformer where high heat and temperature converts the water vapor and hydrocarbons from the natural gas into mixtures of hydrogen gas, CO and unreacted gas.
  4. The synthesized gas then goes into a secondary reformer.
  5. The resulting gaseous mixture then undergoes CO2 removal by series of adsorption and stripping columns.
  6. The remaining CO2 and the unreacted CO
    undergoes methanation where it reacts with
    hydrogen gas to form methane.
  7. The produced methane in the process is then condensed and removed from the gas mixture.
  8. The resulting gas mixture then undergoes
    compression and enters the main reactor in which the feed gas is converted into ammonia. The End!
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52
Q

Comparison Between 2 Ammonia Separation Mechanisms

A
  1. Condensation
    - High Energy Cost and Fixed Cost at Lower Loop Pressures
    - Economical at higher operating pressures
  2. Absorption
    - Almost constant energy costs that are
    independent of pressure.
    - Economical at lower synthesis pressures
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53
Q

Define Ammonium Nitrate and give its chemical formula

A

(NH4NO3)
- Produced by reacting nitric acid with gaseous ammonia

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54
Q

3 Production Process of Ammonium Nitrate

A
  1. Neutralization
  2. Evaporation
  3. Solidification
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55
Q

Define Neutralization and its 5 Subtypes Processes for Production of Ammonium Nitrate

A
  • The neutralization of nitric acid with ammonia gas produces ammonium nitrate solution and steam.
  • The steam that emerges from the neutralizer can either be purified or condensed, before being purified.

(1) Carnot Process
* Ammonia and nitric acid react in a recycling flow loop where the pressure is greater than the vapor pressure of the solution.
(2) UCB Process
* A portion of the heat of reaction is utilized via a heat exchanger in the pressurized reactor to create steam.
(3) Stamicarbon Process
* A loop reactor that flows into a separator is the neutralizer. The reaction solution is transported without a pump.
(4) NSM/Norsk Hydro Process
* The solution is moved through the reactor via forced circulation and the thermal siphon effect.
(5) Stengel Process
* Employed in the US to directly generate anhydrous ammonium nitrate

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56
Q

Define Evaporation for Production of Ammonium Nitrate

A
  • The bulk of the water that is contained in the Ammonium Nitrate solution must be removed by the evaporator.
  • Normal water content: 1% (pero naay uban methods nga garequire ug 8%)
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57
Q

Define Prilling

A

● Droplets of ammonium nitrate (AN) are solidified to form granules
● The droplets harden and condense into spherical “prills” that are sized for shipping, dried, and chilled.

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58
Q

Common name for calcium ammonium nitrate

A

nitro chalk

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59
Q

Define Granulation

A

● Used to create granular fertilizer by procedures including agglomeration, accretion, or crushing.
● Requires a more complex plant than prilling and a range of equipment, including rotating pans or drums/fluidized beds

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60
Q

Ammonium Sulfate

A

((NH4)2SO4)
● Produced by the reaction of ammonia and sulfuric acid
● Typically, saturators, which are developed from evaporation crystallizers, are used to conduct this process.

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61
Q

Define Merseburg Method (3)

A

Used to extract sulfur compounds as ammonium sulfate from gypsum

  1. Ammonium carbonate is created by bubbling carbon dioxide and ammonia through a water suspension of finely crushed gypsum.
  2. The ammonium carbonate then undergoes a twofold breakdown process with gypsum to produce AS solution and insoluble calcium carbonate.
  3. Filtration is used to remove the calcium carbonate, then evaporation and crystallization are used to recover the sulfate.
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62
Q

Three Categories for Non-fertilizer purposes of Ammonium Sulfate:

A
  1. Technical grade
  2. Anti-cracking grade
  3. Food grade- syempre for food applications
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63
Q

Ammonium phosphate

A
  • Ammonia and phosphoric acid are combined to yield the salts diammonium phosphate (DAP) and monoammonium phosphate (MAP).
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64
Q

Define DAP

A
  • diammonium phosphate
  • crystalline substance and fully water-soluble that’s why it’s plant friendly
  • Solutions are mostly alkaline
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65
Q

Define MAP

A
  • monoammonium phosphate
  • crystalline that dissolves entirely in water
  • Produces acid solutions with a pH of 4.5
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66
Q

MAP Powder Processes

A

Anhydrous ammonia and phosphoric acid are combined to generate MAP in batch or continuous reactors.

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67
Q

DAP Powder Processes

A

Usually performed in a two-stage reactor vessel with feed acid flowing countercurrent to the movement of ammonia gas since DAP solutions contain a high partial pressure of ammonia.

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68
Q

Uses of Ammonium Phosphate

A

● Linked to flame retarding and fire extinguishing because of their thermal stability
● Fertilizers
● Protective film for plywood, papers and fabrics

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69
Q

Define urea

A

● Also known as “carbamide” and “carbonyl diamide”
● Produced using cyanic acid and ammonia

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70
Q

Biuret Chemical Formula

A

NH2CONHCONH2

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71
Q

Haber’s Process

A

An industrial process for producing ammonia by reaction of nitrogen with hydrogen: N2+3H2 ⇌ 2NH3. The reaction is reversible and exothermic, so that a high yield of ammonia is favored by low temperature.

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72
Q

Define Nitric Acid

A

● Commercial nitric acid production involves
oxidizing ammonia and then reacting oxidation products with water to form a highly acidic, caustic liquid.
● Also called as “aqua fortis” or “strong water”

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73
Q

Production of Nitric Acid

A

Production: using the Birdeland-Eyde or Arc
method by
1) putting air through an electric arc
2) creating nitric oxide
3) oxidizing NO with air, and
4) soaking up the resultant nitrogen oxides in
water.

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74
Q

Define Ostwald Process

A
  • an industrial process for producing nitric acid
  • a process that involves the oxidation of ammonia to nitrogen dioxide, which is then absorbed in water to form nitric acid
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75
Q

Define Sodium Nitrate

A

● One of the earliest inorganic nitrogen fertilizers
● Commonly referred to as “Chilean nitrate”

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76
Q

Production of sodium nitrate (3)

A

Process:
● Sodium carbonate or sodium bicarbonate are used to neutralize nitric acid to produce sodium nitrate
● By adding sodium hydroxide to neutralize it
● Or by combining stoichiometric amounts of sodium hydroxide, sodium bicarbonate, or sodium carbonate with ammonium nitrate

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77
Q

Define Potassium Nitrate

A
  • For synthetic fertilizers
  • Speeds up the burning of combustible
    substances despite not being flammable
    itself
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78
Q

Production of potassium nitrate (2)

A

Process:
● Can be made by combining ammonium nitrate and potassium hydroxide
● By neutralizing nitric acid with potassium
hydroxide

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79
Q

Define cyanamide

A

frequently manifests as the calcium salt

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80
Q

Production of cyanamide

A

Process:
● Calcium cyanamide, which is made from calcium carbide via the Frank-Caro technique, is hydrolyzed to create cyanamide.

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81
Q

Sulfuric Acid Chemical Formula and 2 Termed Names

A

(H2SO4)
- “Oil of vitriol”
- “King of chemicals”

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82
Q

Frasch Process in Manufacturing Sulfur (2)

A
  1. Hot water is utilized to melt sulfur deposits and pump them to the surface
  2. The liquefied sulfur enters a separator where air is removed and is discharged into bins or large storage where it can solidify.
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83
Q

Contact Process in Manufacturing Sulfur (3)

A
  1. Production of sulfur trioxide (SO2) gas
    - raw materials (in this case, elemental
    sulfur) is fed to a burner along with dry air so that SO2 is produced.
  2. Conversion of sulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide
    - the resulting SO2 made from the first
    stage is introduced to a converter to
    produce SO3
  3. Production of sulphuric acid (H2SO4) from sulfur trioxide (SO3)
    - a reagent of weak sulfuric acid is made
    into contact with the resulting SO3 as it
    cannot be directly dissolved into water
    without the formation of fog which would
    be difficult to be absorbed.
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84
Q

Define Catalyst

A
  • materials that are not consumed in a
    reaction but will change a reaction’s rate.
  • Vanadium pentoxide ang usually
    ginagamit nila now as a catalyst for the
    production of SO3
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85
Q

Define Sulfur Trioxide Absorbers

A

made into contact with weak sulfuric acid to form oleum

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86
Q

Define Acid pumps

A

circulate and transfer different
concentrations of acids over the drying and
absorbing towers

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87
Q

Define Acid Coolers

A

fluid is passed through an acid
cooler, where the recovered heat will be used as additional energy.

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88
Q

Define Sulfur Trioxide

A
  • used for sulfonation, especially in the manufacture of detergents
  • produced by reacting sulfur dioxide with oxygen along with the presence of a catalyst
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89
Q

Electrodialysis Process (2)

A
  • one technique which is utilized to recover used sulfuric acid

Process:
1. Spent acid is passed through a number of
membranes which separates the acid into
component parts while extracting the impurities.
2. The purified acid can then be reused for other processes. Another eco-friendly way to recover used sulfuric acid involves utilization of bleaching soil.

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90
Q

Sulfuric acid is available in three concentrations:

A

78%, 93%, and 98%.

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91
Q

Define Double Contact Double Absorption (DCDA)

A

● This achieves up to 99.0 – 99.6%. In the DCDA process, an inlet of SO2 + Air mixture is introduced into the converter.
● Third catalytic bed in the converter, the resulting SO3 gases are then removed and placed into a primary absorber where a concentrated H2SO4 solution is then introduced so that a concentrated
oleum is produced.

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92
Q

Wet Gas Sulfuric Acid (WSA) Process (3)

A

● Production of SO2 and SO3 is the same as that of the Single contact single absorption and the Double contact double absorption.
● In contrast to the traditional process, the SO3 is directly reacted with water to H2SO4 which results in a fog of sulfuric acid, this fog then enters a WSA condenser in which the gas is cooled by air through counter-current flow.
● The condensed sulfuric acid then exits at the bottom and the captured heat from this process is then recycled afterwards.

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93
Q

Define Hydrochloric Acid

A
  • Strong, corrosive acid that can be used in the building and construction industries to make steel
  • utilized in the large-scale production of vinyl
    chloride, which is used to create polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plastic
  • A disinfectant and slimicide (stops the growth of slime on paper)
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94
Q

Uses of Hydrochloric Acid (3)

A

● Elimination of stains from floor tiles and kitchen sinks
● Used for pickling and cleaning metal surfaces, electroplating, activating geothermal oil wells, food processing
● For production of zinc chloride for batteries, the removal of scale from boilers, the preparation of PCBs and other electronic products, and the production of fertilizers and dyes

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95
Q

Production of Hydrochloric Acid

A

● HCl is a byproduct of manufacturing sodium carbonate developed through the Leblanc process
● HCl as a by-product for the chlorination of
benzene to form chlorobenzene

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96
Q

Define Bromine

A

Exists as a dense, reddish-brown liquid with a pungent odor

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97
Q

Production of bromine (2)

A

● Obtained commercially from seawater by reacting it with chlorine in the presence of sulfuric acid through a chemical displacement process known as oxidation
● Other way pud ni:
- Industrially, manufactured through the
direct reaction of chlorine with brine that
contains high levels of bromine ions

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98
Q

Define Iodine

A

● Responsible in the production of thyroid
components and for the regulation of our body’s temperatures
● Mainly sourced from iodate minerals, natural brine deposits formed by ancient seas’ evaporation, and brackish waters from oil and salt wells.
● Iodine is extracted now from the iodate obtained from nitrate ores, or iodine vapor is extracted from the processed brine.

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99
Q

Define Fluorspar and give its chemical formula

A

CaF2
- significant source of fluorine

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100
Q

Define Fluorine

A
  • most reactive element and does not occur
    freely in nature
  • produced through the electrolysis of
    potassium fluoride and hydrofluoric acid,
    as well as through the electrolysis of
    molten potassium acid fluoride
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101
Q

Define Chlorofluorocarbons

A
  • synthetic chemical compounds that
    consist of carbon (C), chlorine (Cl), and
    fluorine (F)
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102
Q

Define Hydrochlorofluorocarbons

A
  • developed as alternatives to
    chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) because they
    have lower ozone depletion potential
    (ODP) but still possess some
    ozone-depleting properties.
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103
Q

Define Montreal Protocol

A
  • its primary goal is to protect the Earth’s
    ozone layer by phasing out the production
    and use of substances that deplete ozone
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104
Q

Define Fowler Process

A

Used for the production of fluorocarbons,
particularly chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

● Reaction of chloroform (CHCl3) with hydrogen fluoride (HF) in the presence of antimony pentachloride (SbCl5) as a catalyst

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105
Q

Define Fluorosilicates or silicofluorides

A
  • Containing both silicon and fluorine
  • Examples: Sodium fluorosilicate (Na2SiF6) and fluorosilicic acid (H2SiF6).
  • Typically white crystalline solids that are soluble in water and highly toxic if ingested or inhaled in high concentrations
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106
Q

Define Alumina

A

“Aluminum oxide, Al2O3”
● White or grayish-white, odorless, and tasteless powder that is insoluble in water
● Amphoteric - it has both acidic and basic
properties

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107
Q

Define Bayer Process

A
  • Extracting alumina from bauxite ore
    ● Occurs during the calcination stage of the process, where the precipitated aluminum hydroxide is heated to a temperature between 980-1,100°C to remove the water molecules and form pure alumina.
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108
Q

Define Alum

A
  • class of chemical compounds
    known as double sulfates.
  • The most common type of alum is
    potassium aluminum sulfate
    (potassium alum or alum). It has
    the chemical formula
    KAl(SO4)2·12H2O
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109
Q

Define Aluminum Sulfate

A
  • also known as alum in its
    powdered form
  • Chemical Formula: Al2(SO4)3
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110
Q

Production Process For aluminum sulfate (2)

A

● Reaction of sulfuric acid with bauxite or clay in a reactor vessel at high temperatures
● The resulting solution is then passed through a series of processes such as evaporation, crystallization, and centrifugation to obtain the desired product.

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111
Q

Define Aluminum Chloride

A

● Chemical Formula: AlCl3
● However, due to the tendency of
aluminum to form covalent bonds with
halides, it exists as a dimer (formed by the
combination of two identical or similar
subunits) called Al2Cl6

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112
Q

Production Process of Aluminum Chloride

A

Production Process:
● Reaction of aluminum metal with chlorine gas
● Once the reaction is complete, the crude product is typically purified by sublimation or distillation to remove any remaining impurities

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113
Q

Define copper salts

A
  • Chemical compounds in which copper is combined with one or more other elements
  • Some common copper salts include copper sulfate, copper chloride, copper nitrate, and copper acetate
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114
Q

Define Molybdenum compounds

A
  • included lead, galena, graphite, and molybdenite (MoS2)
  • lowers sulfur emissions, making fuel refining cheaper and safer
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115
Q

Define Barium Salts and its two types

A
  • includes barium- very reactive, reacting readily with water to release hydrogen.

Types:
1. Barite (BaSO4)
- Also known as “natural barium sulfate”
2. Barium Carbonate (BaCO3)
- produced commercially using the same
method as strontium carbonate
production—the “black ash” process—from
barite and coke.

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116
Q

Two Types of Strontium Salts

A
  1. Strontium Carbonate (SrCO3)
    - Below 926 °C, it has a rhombic structure,
    but above this temperature, it has a
    hexagonal structure.
  2. Strontium oxide (SrO), hydroxide (Sr(OH)2 and peroxide (SrO2)
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117
Q

Type of Lithium Salts and its Production Process

A

Lithium Carbonate (Li2CO3)
- Used before as a treatment for bipolar
illnesses as well as other psychiatric
disorders such schizophrenia, major
depression, and impulse control issues

Production Process:
● The addition of sodium carbonate to the brine, which precipitates lithium carbonate, is one of the most used techniques for manufacturing lithium carbonate from brine.
● Other way: direct extraction of lithium from ores like spodumene and petalite

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118
Q

6 Types of Boron

A

● Borax
- also known as sodium borate
- naturally occurring mineral compound
that consists of sodium, boron, oxygen,
and water.
- Chemical formula: Na2B4O7·10H2O
● Boric Acid
- weak acid that is derived from the
chemical element boron. Its chemical
formula is H3BO3
● Boron Carbide (B4C)
- used as an abrasive, in the production of
hard and chemically resistant ceramics or
wear-resistant tools
● Boron Nitride (BN)
● Boron Trichloride (BCl3)
● Boron Trifluoride (BF3)

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119
Q

3 Types of Rare-Earth Compounds

A

(1) Cerium
- so-called rare-earth metal with the
highest abundance
- If scratched with a sharp object, pure
cerium will ignite, but when mixed with
other materials, it is safe
Examples:
1. Cerium oxide (CeO2)
2. Ceric Sulfate (Ce(SO4)2)

(2) Lanthanum
Examples: Lanthana- La2O3

(3) Thorium
- thorium tarnishes in air when
contaminated with the oxide, turning gray
and then black. When heated in air, thorium metal burns brightly.

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120
Q

What is Thorium Oxide

A

(ThO2)- also known as “thoria

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121
Q

Define Sodium Dichromate

A

applications as a potent oxidizing agent, corrosion inhibitor, and component in the creation of pigments, dyes, and other compounds, this substance swiftly rose to prominence as a significant

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122
Q

United States Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA)

A

Designated sodium dichromate as
a dangerous material, and the European Union has limited its use in specific applications.

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123
Q

What is Hydrogen Peroxide

A

● Chemical Formula: H2O2
● Strong oxidizer

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124
Q

Autoxidation Method of Production
Process (5)

A

● Hydrogen reacts with the reaction carrier, a
quinone derivative, in the reactor in the presence of a palladium catalyst to create a hydroquinone.
● The working solution is then fully filtered to
remove the catalyst.
● Huge compressors pump air into a bubble reactor that is filled with the working solution during the second step, known as the oxidation stage.
● The hydroquinone in the organic phase
spontaneously oxidizes back into quinone when it comes into contact with the oxygen in the air, producing hydrogen peroxide in the process.
● This process is known as an autoxidation because it occurs without the need of a catalyst.

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125
Q

Define Nuclear Energy

A
  • produced when an atom’s nucleus is split (through fission) or combined (via fusion).
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126
Q

Define Nuclear reactions

A
  • involve changes in the nucleus of an atom, leading to the release or absorption of energy
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127
Q

Nuclear Fission

A

● Splitting of a heavy nucleus into two
lighter ones, releasing a large amount of
energy in the process.
● Involves the use of neutrons

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128
Q

Nuclear Fission Process (3)

A

Process:
● Neutron enters a nucleus in a nuclear
reactor–typically Uranium-235 (235U).
● When a neutron collides with the nucleus
of a heavy atom, such as 235U, the nucleus
becomes unstable and splits into two
smaller nuclei.
● This transforms the nucleus into the
perilously unstable 236U.

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129
Q

NUCLEAR FISSION OF URANIUM-235 (2)

A

● It first absorbs a slow neutron during the process, creating the highly unstable chemical nucleus 236U.
● 236U separates into two product nuclei, Barium-141 and Krypton-92, during the fission process.

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130
Q

Nuclear Fission of 238U to Plutonium-239 (239Pu)

A

● The reaction produces 239Pu which is a fissile isotope.
● The 239Pu can thus sustain a chain fission reaction. When a thermal neutron strikes the 239Pu atom, it creates 240Pu, which is unstable and performs a fission process, producing Zirconium-103, Xenon-134, and three fast neutrons

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131
Q

Define Nuclear Fusion

A

● Involves the combining of two light nuclei
to form a heavier one, releasing even more
energy than fission.
● Plasma is the state of matter where fusion
events take place.
● Not yet used to produce electricity
because fusion reactions are exceedingly
challenging. It is difficult to find materials
that can resist such high temperatures and
the energy requirements are very high.

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132
Q

Compare the Advantages and Disadvantages of Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion

A

(1) Nuclear Fission
Advantages:
1. Large amounts of energy produced
2. Reliable source of power
3. Technology is well-established
4. No greenhouse gas emissions
Disadvantages:
1. Produces radioactive waste that needs disposal
2. High risk of nuclear accidents
3. Uranium is a finite resource

(2) Nuclear Fusion
Advantages:
1. Large amounts of energy produced
2. Fuel supply of hydrogen is abundant
3. No greenhouse gas emissions
4. No long-lived radioactive waste produced
Disadvantages:
1. Technology is not yet commercially viable
2. High temperatures required for fusion reaction
3. Requires large initial investment
4. Challenges in containment of plasma

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133
Q

3 Types of Reactors Classified by Moderation Material

A

● Light-Water Reactor - employ “light water” (simple water) as a neutron moderator or coolant rather than deuterium oxide (2H2O).
● Graphite Moderated Reactor - graphite is an effective neutron moderator because its carbon atoms have a low atomic weight and have a high probability of elastic scattering with neutrons.
● Heavy Water Reactor- syempre nag use ug heavy water as a neutron moderator krazy

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134
Q

2 Types of Reactors Classified by Coolant Material

A

● Pressurized Water Reactor- uses light water
(common water, as opposed to heavy water) as its coolant and neutron moderator.
● Boiling Water Reactor- use light water—as
opposed to heavy water—as their coolant and neutron moderator.

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135
Q

2 Types of Reactors Classified by Reaction Type

A

● Fast Neutron Reactor - generate electricity from depleted nuclear waste
i. Liquid Metal Fast Neutron Reactor - uses
liquid metal, such as sodium or lead, as a coolant
ii. Molten Salt Fast Neutron Reactor -
using a liquid fuel in the form of a molten salt mixture to sustain a fast neutron nuclear reaction
● Thermal Neutron Reactor - similar steps are taken in thermal reactors as in fast-neutron reactors, but plutonium production takes longer

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136
Q

3 Nuclear Fuel Sources

A
  1. Uranium mines
  2. Nuclear reprocessing
  3. Breeder reactors
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137
Q

Nuclear Fuel Process (8)

A
  1. Uranium recovery
    - recovered using both “traditional” open pit,
    underground mining, and in situ methods
    - to extract the uranium, the ore is crushed and subjected to a chemical treatment
  2. Conversion and Purification
    - The mill converts the uranium ore concentrate into uranium oxide, sometimes known as “yellow cake,” which is then packaged in 55-gallon barrels and
    transported to the uranium conversion plant.
    - The yellow cake is refined and purified, using extraction methods to separate uranium and yielding high purities.
  3. Enrichment
    - The method currently used for commercial
    enrichment is gas centrifuge enrichment.
    - A gas centrifuge cylinder is filled with UF6 gas and rapidly revolves. The heavier gas molecules (UF6 containing 238U atoms) travel toward the outside of the cylinder due to the intense centrifugal force produced by this rotation.
  4. Deconversion
    - The chemical risks connected with depleted
    uranium are diminished throughout the
    deconversion process. The fluoride atoms in UF6 are removed during the deconversion process and replaced with oxygen.
  5. Fuel fabrication
    - Converts enriched uranium into fuel for nuclear reactors
    - The conversion is carried out by heating the
    sample to a vapor and then using a two-stage reaction vessel (such as a rotary kiln) to combine diluted H2 and solid uranyl fluoride (UO2F2),
  6. Interim storage
    - spent nuclear help is highly radioactive and
    continues to produce heat and radiation for many years after it is removed from the reactor maong dapat careful ang pagstore
  7. Reprocessing
    - process of recovering useful materials from spent nuclear fuel or nuclear waste for reuse as fuel in nuclear reactors and material that will be discarded as wastes
  8. Final Disposition
    - entails putting nuclear waste or spent fuel in a deep geological disposal site or geologic repository that keeps the waste sealed off from the environment for generations to come
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138
Q

Uranium Oxide Common Name

A

Yellow Cake

139
Q

Uranium Nitrate Hexahydrate Chemical Formula

A

2UO2(NO3)2 . 6H2O

140
Q

Uranium Hexafluoride Chemical Formula

A

UF6

141
Q

Define Nuclear Power

A
  • type of energy that is produced by harnessing the energy released by a nuclear reaction, either through nuclear fission or nuclear fusion.
142
Q

2 Types of Nuclear Waste

A

● High-level waste - highly radioactive requires special handling and disposal
Disposal of HLW:
- immobilize the waste in a stable form,
such as glass or ceramic
- the process converts liquid radioactive and
chemical waste into a solid, stable glass,
eliminating environmental risks
● Low-level waste - less radioactive and can be disposed of in near-surface facilities

143
Q

Define Black Powder

A

➢ Earliest known chemical explosive
➢ First explosive
➢ Composed mainly of 15% charcoal, 75% saltpeter, and 10% sulfur

144
Q

Define Charcoal

A

Consists of broken down cellulose and
provides carbon and other fuel for the reaction.

145
Q

Define Saltpeter

A

also known as potassium nitrate,
supplies oxygen for the combustion reaction.

146
Q

Define Sulfur

A

Also referred to as brimstone, lowers
ignition temperature required to start for the
reaction.

147
Q

Define Nitroglycerin and give its Chemical Formula

A

(C3H5N3O9)
- A colorless, thick, oily, flammable, highly explosive, slightly water-soluble liquid
- Used chiefly as a constituent of dynamite and other explosives, in rocket propellants, and in medicine.
- Prepared from glycerol with nitric and sulfuric acids.

148
Q

Define Dynamite

A
  • Invented by Alfred Nobel out of nitroglycerin in 1867
  • from the Greek dynamis, “power”
  • An explosive based on the explosive potential of nitroglycerin using diatomaceous earth (Kieselguhr) as an absorbent which is a diatomite.
149
Q

Define Nitrocellulose and give its Chemical Formula

A

(C18H21N11O38)
- Produced by the reaction of cellulose and nitric acid, or other strong nitrating agent
- Nontoxic but highly flammable
- Classified as an explosive when nitrogen content exceeds 12.6%

150
Q

Define Mercury fulminate blasting cap

A
  • A primary explosive
  • Highly sensitive to friction, heat, and shock
  • Mainly used as a trigger for other explosives in percussion caps and detonators
  • Example of explosive that can be primary or
    secondary
151
Q

Define Explosives

A
  • A material that, under the influence of thermal or mechanical shock, decomposes rapidly and spontaneously with the evolution of large amounts of heat and gas.
152
Q

3 Fundamental Types of Explosives

A

1) Mechanical explosive - one that depends on a physical reaction, such as overloading a container with compressed air.
2) Atomic explosive - compress nuclear material, causing fission; the fission releases massive amounts of energy in the form of X-rays, which create the high temperature and pressure needed to ignite fusion.
3) Chemical Explosive - a solid or liquid substance (or mixture of substances) which is in itself capable by chemical reaction of producing gas at such a temperature and pressure and at such a speed as to cause damage to the surroundings.

153
Q

Detonating (high) explosives

A
  • characterized by extremely rapid
    decomposition and development of high
    pressure.
  • detonate at very high rates from 2 to 9 x
    10^3 m/s
  • Examples:
    ● Dynamite
    ● Flash powders
    ● Trinitrotoluene (TNT)
    ● Nitroglycerin
    ● Bulk salutes
154
Q

4 Types of Explosives

A
  1. Detonating (high) explosives
  2. Deflagrating (low) explosives
  3. Blasting Agents
  4. Slurry Explosives
155
Q

2 Types of Detonating Explosive

A

● Primary or Initiating High Explosives
- Highly sensitive
- Detonate by ignition from some source
such as flame, spark, impact, or other
means that will produce heat of sufficient
magnitude
- Detonation takes place and shock waves
travel through material
- Examples: lead azide, lead styphnate,
Diazodinitrophenol, mercury fulminate,
tetrazene
- Priming compound is often mixed with
other chemicals which provide oxygen to
assist in the production of the flame, a fuel
to increase the length and temperature of
the flame and ground glass as an abrasive
to assist in the initial ignition of the
explosive
● Secondary or Booster High Explosive
- Insensitive to heat and they normally burn.
So, they require a detonator and in some
cases, a supplementary booster.
- Examples: RDX (cyclotrimethylene
nitramine), PETN
(pentaerythritol-tetranitrate), and HMX
(cyclotetramethylenetetranitramine)

156
Q

Define Deflagrating (low) explosives

A
  • mixtures of chemicals that burn very
    rapidly, but subsonically (as opposed to
    supersonically), meaning that they
    “deflagrate”
  • Relatively homogeneous chemical
    mixtures consist typically of fuel and an oxidizer reaction velocities are about 600
    to 900 m/s not initiated by detonation but
    deflagration.
  • No shock wave but rather a rapid burning
    Examples: black powder, safety fuses,
    igniter cords, and fuse lighter
157
Q

Define Blasting Agents

A
  • any material or mixture consisting of a fuel
    and oxidizer
  • consists primarily of inorganic nitrates
    (ammonium and sodium nitrates) and
    carbonaceous fuels
158
Q

Define Slurry Explosives

A
  • a water gel/slurry explosive
  • an aqueous solution of an inorganic
    oxidizer gelled with a carbonaceous gelling
    agent
  • The liquid is emulsified with a sensitizing
    liquid aliphatic mononitrate containing
    from 3 to 8 carbon atoms per molecule.
    Preferred nitrates: n-propyl nitrate,
    isopropyl nitrate, amyl nitrate, hexyl
    nitrate, and octyl nitrate
159
Q

Define Trauzl Test for strength

A
  • A test used to measure the strength of explosive materials
  • The test is performed by loading a 10 g
    foil-wrapped sample of the explosive into a hole drilled in a lead block with specific dimensions and properties. The hole is then topped up with sand, and the sample is detonated electrically. After detonation, the increase in cavity volume is measured. The result, given in cm3, is called the Trauzl number of the explosive
160
Q

Define Brisance test for shattering ability

A
  • Can be used to show the shattering power of an energetic compound and the speed yo reach its peak pressure.
161
Q

2 Types of Brisance test for shattering ability

A

a) Sand crush test
- Based on determining the amount of standard sand which is crushed by a standard mass of explosive
- Convenient method for determining the brisance of energetic compounds in comparison with methods
b) Plate-denting test
- an adequate tool for obtaining the brisance by demonstrating the capability of a detonating explosive to impart a dent or a depression on a steel plate or any other suitable metal

162
Q

Permissible explosive

A
  • explosive approved by the U.S. Bureau of Mines for controlled heat and duration of detonation flame and allowed for use in underground work.
  • Reduces the possibility of coal dust or methane gas
163
Q

Define Ethylene glycol dinitrate and give its Chemical Formula

A

(C2H4N2O6)
- Abbreviated EGDN and NGC, also known as
Nitroglycol
- a colorless, oily explosive liquid obtained by
nitrating ethylene glycol
- used as an explosive ingredient in dynamite along with nitroglycerin
- is similar to nitroglycerin in both manufacture and properties, though it is more volatile and less viscous

164
Q

Define Gelatin Dynamite

A
  • consists of a nitrocellulose-nitroglycerin gel
  • available in very high strengths (up to 90%
    nitroglycerin), making it useful for excavating
    extremely hard rock
165
Q

Nitrocellulose Production

A
  • commonly prepared by the batch-type mechanical dipper process
166
Q

Wellington Plant Process

A
  • consists of bulk linter bale opening and feeding, continuous pre-nitration (meaning continuous linter and mixed acid feeding to pre-nitrator), postnitration, continuous acid recovery by centrifuging, automatic plc controlled pre-boiling within a 10 hours, refining, automatic post-boiling for 10 hour, blending and continuous centrifugation with the option to deliver water wet or alcohol damp NC.
167
Q

Define Smokeless Powder

A
  • A type of propellant used in firearms and artillery that produces less smoke and less fouling when fired compared to gunpowder (“black powder”)
    Examples: Cordite, Ballisite, and historically, Poudre B.
168
Q

Define Ball Powder

A
  • The spheres and flakes are not the most favorable shapes for high-performance progressive burning propellant. For that, the addition of nitroglycerin increases the energy content and performance of the propellant, but it also makes it easy to get the nitrocellulose grains to absorb the burn-rate
    inhibitors, rather than having them only on the surface (like extruded stick powder).
169
Q

Rockets

A
  • are high energy vehicles that use powerful
    propulsion to overcome the force of gravity and travel into space.
170
Q

Specific impulse (Is)

A
  • measurement by which a rocket propellant may be rated
  • this rating is used to compare the performances of different propellants and is basically dependent upon the amount of thrust and the mass flow rate of the evolved gas through the nozzle of the rocket
171
Q

Define Liquid Propellants

A
  • Propellants that are added to the combustion chamber as liquids may it be fuel, oxidizers or catalysts
172
Q

Hydrazine Chemical Formula

A

H2NNH2

173
Q

Define Solid Propellants

A
  • contains a mixture of the oxidizer and the
    propellant in a cylindrical mold inside which is a hole that serves as the combustion chamber
174
Q

2 Types of Solid Propellants

A
  1. Homogenous
    - contains the fuel and oxidizer in the same
    molecule
    - contains nitrocellulose and nitroglycerin
    as the base and other fillers in a colloidal
    mixture
  2. Heterogenous
    - contain two distinct phases: a solid
    oxidizer and a matrix of a polymeric binder
    which also serves as the fuel
175
Q

Industrial Applications of Explosives in Pyrotechnics

A

● Designed to create a special effect either
from smoke, light, heat or sound resulting
from non-detonative self-sustaining
exothermic reactions.
● Magnesium powder is usually used
because of its high light-generating (white)
properties, but aluminum may also be used
if shelf life is considered.

176
Q

Industrial Applications of Explosives in Matches

A

Safety matches
● This type of match is of two parts, the box, and the matchstick.
● The matchstick contains fuel, usually antimony sulfide, and an oxidizer, such as potassium chlorate.
● The box has a special strip composed normally of red phosphorus, and ground glass to maximize heat generated by friction.

Strike-anywhere matches
● Famously called Lucifer matches or Friction
matches
● Can be ignited by striking them with basically any rough surface
● One thing that sets them apart from safety
matches is that all needed components for the combustion reaction are on the matchstick including fuel, oxidizing agents, and ground glass.

177
Q

Industrial Applications of Explosives in Military Explosives

A

● The explosives in these types of
applications are powerful and accurate
enough to do their intended use well while
also being able to survive prolonged
storage even in harsh climates to prevent
jeopardizing the success of a military
operation and the safety of military
personnel.

178
Q

Industrial Applications of Explosives in Trinitrotoluene (TNT)

A

● Formed by adding three NO2 groups in
stages to toluene to form the symmetrical
2,4,6-trinitrotoluene, to be used as a pale
yellow dye.
● One of its major setbacks was its high
activating energy

179
Q

Industrial Applications of Explosives in Tetryl

A

● 2,4,6-trinitrophenylmethylnitramine
● Can be detonated by friction or spark but
mostly by a primary explosive such as
mercury fulminate or potassium chlorate.

180
Q

Industrial Applications of Explosives in Picric Acid

A

● 2,4,6-trinitrophenol
● A strong acid and forms very sensitive
salts with metals

181
Q

Industrial Applications of Explosives in Explosive D

A

● Also called Ammonium perchlorate or
Dunnite
● A salt of picric acid
● Commonly used as a bursting charge for
armor-piercing shells

182
Q

Industrial Applications of Explosives in PETN

A

● Pentaerythritol tetranitrate or PETN
● One of the most powerful high explosives
● Degrades slower and is less shock
sensitive than nitroglycerine but is more
reactive and sensitive than TNT.

183
Q

Industrial Applications of Explosives in RDX

A

● A code name meaning Research
Department eXplosive, RDX is essentially
sym-cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine.

184
Q

Industrial Applications of Explosives in Lead Azide

A

● Encased usually by aluminum or steel as it
creates a super sensitive explosive when in
contact with copper and is known to react
with alloys of zinc and cadmium.
● Because of its resistance to shock and its
overall stability, it does not detonate
easily.

185
Q

Industrial Applications of Explosives in Lead Styphnate

A

● A common primary explosive, it is usually
used in combination with lead azide in the
military, police, and civilian firearms as a
primer.

186
Q

Industrial Applications of Explosives in Incendiaries

A

● Substances specially designed to cause the
combustion of combustible materials in
the target perimeter.
● These weapons take advantage of human’s
inert and ancient fear of fire.
● An incendiary may take the form of bombs,
artillery shells, or grenades.
● Combination of materials results in a fire
that burns intensely and is hard to put out
by water alone.

187
Q

Industrial Applications of Explosives in Toxic Chemical Weapons

A

● Those that exploit the lethal forces of
nature and are considered by some as the
most inhumane weapons for war.

188
Q

Industrial Applications of Explosives in Screening Smokes

A

● Those used to produce a fog-like
atmosphere.
● Done for various purposes such as to
obscure the view of an area to conceal
troop operations or artillery placement, to
mark a specific area, for distraction, and
many more.

189
Q

Common chemical warfare agents (CWA)
can be sorted mainly into: (4)

A

★ Choking agents - target the pulmonary system of its victims, mainly the lungs.
★ Blood agents - utilize cyanide to prevent the transfer of oxygen from the blood to the body tissues.
★ Nerve agents - destabilizes the central nervous system by causing an excess of acetylcholine in the body (but with enough exposure may affect other bodily functions).
★ Blister agents - cause burns and blisters to the skin and require overall body equipment for protection.

190
Q

Define Surface-coating industry

A
  • one of the key sectors that involves application of a thin layer of material to a surface to protect it from corrosion.
191
Q

Define Surface-coating

A
  • any material that may be applied as a thin continuous layer to a surface.
192
Q

Define Paint

A
  • a mixture or dispersion of opaque pigments or powders in a liquid or vehicle used for decorative and protective purposes.
193
Q

7 Components of Paint

A
  1. Base
    - body of the paint made up of a solid material that has been finely ground.
  2. Vehicle
    - resin dissolved in a solvent and dries to create a strong coating that adheres the pigment to the surface.
  3. Pigment
    - in charge of giving paint its color.
  4. Thinner
    - solvent added to paint to make paint application convenient, smooth and homogeneous.
  5. Extenders (fillers)
    - enhance or extend the volume of the paint
  6. Drier
    - speed-up the drying of the paint’s vehicle
  7. Additive
    - added in a tiny amount to enhance features of the paint
194
Q

PVC is defined as

A

PVC = volume of pigment in paint/(volume of pigment in paint + volume of nonvolatile vehicle constituents in paints)

195
Q

(5) Crucial parts in manufacturing of paint

A

(a) Measures of ingredients
- ingredients are measured and weighed on scales using calibrated vats
(b) Preparation and pigment dispersion
- Pigments are added.
- These particles are tiny and produce clumps when they stay together.
- They are broken down by the resin and additives that keep them from sticking together. Paint Mixer is then used.
(c) Let-down
- additives, resin, and solvent are combined in a large vat
- mill-base is stirred and if needed, some final additions are added
(d) Laboratory Testing
- Factors considered: critical ingredients, degree of mixing, tint strength, color, gloss, dry time, viscosity and the general appearance
(e) Canning
- two (2) samples are taken— a retained sample and final inspection sample.
- Manufactured Products ready? Dispatch then.

196
Q

Define Paint Failure

A
  • the failure of paint to resist wear can be associated with several causes, such as chalking, flaking, alligatoring, checking, and normal wearing
197
Q

efine Chalking

A
  • powdering of the paint film from the surface inward that is caused by continued and destructive oxidation of the oil after the original drying of the paint.
198
Q

Define Erosion

A
  • very rapid chalking
199
Q

Define Flaking/Peeling

A
  • due to poor attachment of the paint to the surface being covered and is usually attributed to dirt or grease on the surface or to water entering from behind the paint.
200
Q

Define Alligatoring

A
  • form of peeling in which the center portion of the section starting to peel remains attached to the surface
201
Q

Define Checking

A
  • denoted a very fine type of surface cracking
202
Q

Define Normal Wear

A
  • gradual removal of paint from surface by the elements, leaving a smooth surface
203
Q

Define Pigments

A
  • Colored (organic and inorganic insoluble
    compounds)
  • Commonly employed to give color in surface coatings ink, plastic, rubber, ceramic, paper, and linoleum industries
204
Q

Define Varnishes

A

● Non-pigmented paints that dry to a hard-gloss, semi-gloss, or flat transparent coating
● Produced by heating drying oil and resin
● Processes: solvent evaporation, oxidation, and polymerization

205
Q

Define Resins (a.k.a Binders)

A

● Intended to hold the pigment particles together
● Provide adhesion to surface paint e.g. Phenolic, Alkyd, Ester gum, Epoxy, Synthetic

206
Q

Define Lacquers

A

● Organic solvent-based solution of a hard-linear polymer
● Dries through simple solvent evaporation
Advantage: Quick-drying speed
● Applications: i. Automotive, ii. Furniture, iii. Metal finishes, iv. Rubber, textile treatments

207
Q

Applications of Surface-Coating Industry

A

A. Industrial Coatings
B. Marine Anti-Fouling
- used to protect boats, ships, and other marine structures from fouling organisms (Barnacles, Mussels, and Algae) that attach themselves to the underwater surfaces.
- Some base-coatings (Copper, Zinc, Silicon)
C. Printing Inks
- transfer images and text onto substrates (paper, cardboard, plastic)
- Types: Solvent-based, Water-based, UV Curable

208
Q

9 Types of Food Processing

A
  1. Refining and Milling
  2. Canning
  3. Concentration
  4. Freezing
  5. Drying
  6. Pasteurization and Sterilization
  7. Fermentation
  8. Irradiation
  9. Packaging
209
Q

Define Refining

A
  • process of converting sugar obtained from its plant source (such as sugar cane or sugar beets) to the common food product, refined sugar.
210
Q

Define Milling

A
  • process of converting grain into flour. A small amount of water is added to prevent the outer part of the kernel from pulverizing.
211
Q

Define Canning

A
  • allows long-term storages of these foods
    by sealing food into the container, and
    heat treating the entire thing to cook the
    food and sterilize the container.
  • one of the main objectives in processing is
    to destroy the bacterium Clostridium
    botulinum.
212
Q

Define Concentration

A
  • food that naturally contains a high
    percentage of water such as milk and
    oranges may be partially dehydrated as a
    preservation method.
213
Q

Define Freezing

A
  • freezing food very quickly and kept at
    temperatures low enough to prevent ice
    crystal formation
  • does not kill the microorganisms present
    in food but does inactivate them
214
Q

Define Pasteurization

A
  • high-temperature short-time (HTST) method which exposes the milk to 73°C for not less than 16 s, followed by rapid cooling
  • this method does not kill all the bacteria present, so the product must be kept under refrigeration until used
215
Q

Define Sterilization

A
  • completely inactivate all microorganisms, both pathogenic and nonpathogenic
216
Q

Define Fermentation

A
  • decomposition of carbohydrates, while
    putrefaction involves the action of
    microorganisms on protein
  • produces carbon dioxide with no putrid
    odor, while putrefaction produces
    sulfur-containing protein products and
    hydrogen sulfide, giving that nasty smell
217
Q

Define Irridiation

A
  • The ionizing radiation sends enough
    energy into the bacterial or mold cells in
    the food to break chemical bonds.
  • This damages the pathogens enough for
    them to die or no longer multiply, which
    reduces illness or spoilage.
218
Q

Define Packaging

A
  • packaged to make it possible to ship and
    store it far from the place of production
219
Q

Manufacture Process of Leather (2)

A

(1) Chrome tanning, the general process is as follows:
● The cleaned hide is treated in the pickling bath. This is done to lower the pH of the hide, thus facilitating the penetration of the tanning agent into the skin substrate.
● Afterwards, the hides are soaked in a solution of sodium dichromate and then treated with sodium thiosulfate.
● From there, the hide is treated with borax
(Na2[B4O5(OH)4]·8H2O) to set the chrome salts on the fiber.
● Washing then completes the tanning process.

(2) Vegetable tanning on the other hand utilizes tannins (water-soluble polyphenolic compounds found in many plants)

220
Q

Compare Chrome Tanning and Vegetable Tanning

A

Preparation of leather by vegetable tanning is a lengthy process requires two to four months, while chrome tanning requires only one to three weeks.

221
Q

Define Gelatin

A
  • organic nitrogenous, colloidal protein
    substances whose principal value depend
    on their coagulative, protective, and
    adhesive powers.
  • animal gelatin is obtained by hydrolysis
    from collagen – white fibers of the
    connective tissues of the animal body,
    particularly the skin, bones, and tendons.
222
Q

Manufacture of Type A Gelatin

A

● Made by washing the skin, then swollen in hydrochloric acid, phosphoric acid, or sulfuric acid at pH 1.0 to 3.0.
● After swelling, the skins are washed and the pH is adjusted to 3.5 to 4.0, and then extracted with hot water.
● The first extraction is at 55 to 65°C and the last at 95 to 100°C. After the last extraction, the liquid is degreased, filtered, deionized, and concentrated.

223
Q

Manufacture of Type B Gelatin

A

● Usually made from bones
● The degreased bones are demineralized with 4 to 7% HCl over a 1- to 2-week period.
● The bones are agitated daily for 3 to 16 weeks in a lime slurry using lime pits or tanks. The mix is then washed for 15 to 30 hours, acidified to pH 5 using hydrochloric acid, phosphoric acid, sulfuric acid, or acetic acid, which is then extracted.

224
Q

Define Adhesives

A

● Capable of holding materials together by surface attachment

225
Q

5 Types of Adhesives

A
  1. Animal Glues
  2. Other Protein Adhesives
  3. Starch Adhesives
  4. Synthetic-Resin Adhesives
  5. Miscellaneous Adhesives
226
Q

Define Animal Glues

A
  • almost identical with the manufacture of
    Type B gelatin
  • Procedures: The procedures include
    grinding the bones into small pieces,
    degreasing the material, liming and
    plumping, washing, making several
    extractions by hot water, up until drying
    the jelly slabs in a tunnel.
227
Q

Define Casein

A

a milk-derived protein, is the basis of another large class of adhesives and can be made both water- and non-water resistant.

228
Q

Define Starch Adhesives

A
  • less strength and lower water resistance
    than animal glues
229
Q

Define Synthetic-Resin Adhesives

A
  • used where water resistance is required
    and/or other special conditions must be
    fulfilled.
  • Uses:
    ● Rigid Thermosets
    ● Rubbery Thermosets
    ● Thermoplastics
    ● Copolymers and Mixtures
230
Q

Miscellaneous Adhesives

A
  • Inorganic adhesives include glasses and
    ceramics for very high temperature
    service and sodium silicate which is used
    for manufacturing corrugated boxes.
231
Q

Define Agrichemicals

A
  • pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers used for the management of agricultural land.
  • useful in controlling the population of pests, and also increasing product yields.
232
Q

Define Pesticides

A
  • any substance or product, or mixture thereof, including active ingredients, adjuvants, and pesticide formulations,
    intended to control, prevent, destroy, repel, mitigate directly or indirectly, any pest.
  • includes insecticide, fungicide, bactericide, nematocide, herbicide, molluscicide, avicide and the like
233
Q

DDT stands for

A

Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane

234
Q

Define Insecticides

A
  • Used to manage insect-infested agricultural areas or eradicate disease-carrying insects
235
Q

2 Classifications of Insecticides

A
  1. Basic Chemistry
  2. Modes of Penetration
236
Q

3 Modes of Penetration

A
  • Stomach poisons- lethal to pests when ingested
  • Fumigants- target pests’ respiratory system
  • Contact Poisons- lethal with simple body contact
237
Q

Define Sulfur

A
  • oldest known chemicals used for pest control.
  • can be used as livestock supplement, fertilizer or insecticide.
238
Q

Bordeaux mixture

A

CuSO4 + Ca(OH)2

239
Q

Burgundy mixture

A

CuSO4 + Na2CO3

240
Q

Define Botanicals

A
  • insecticides derived from plants (natural insecticides)
  • plant products used tobacco, pyrethrum, derris, etc.
241
Q

3 Kinds of Botanicals

A
  1. Pyrethrum
  2. Nicotine
  3. Rotenone
242
Q

Define Pyrethrum

A
  • botanical extract from the chrysanthemum
  • axonic poison, that is, it interferes with the electrical impulse transmission along the axons of the pest’s brain.
  • greater efficacy at lower temperatures- making it especially effective at night.
243
Q

Define Nicotine

A
  • botanical extract from tobacco
  • especially used for soft-bodied (example: caterpillars)
  • insects exposed to nicotine may experience twitching, convulsions, and death
244
Q

Define Rotenone

A
  • produced from the roots of two legumes: Derris and Lonchocarpus
  • insecticide that poisons the stomach and is harmful to the touch
    -kills all fish at dosages that are relatively harmless to organisms that the fish feed on
245
Q

3 Known Kinds of Synthetic Insecticides

A
  1. Organochlorines
  2. Organophosphates
  3. Carbamates
246
Q

Define Organochlorines

A
  • Other insecticides in this group include BHC, lindane, chlorobenzilate, methoxyclor, and cyclodienes.
247
Q

Define Organophosphates

A
  • plant-juice sucking insects are their main targets
  • absorbed via the plants’ leaves or through the roots
  • more toxic than the organochlorines
248
Q

Define Carbamates

A
  • same mechanism sa organophosphates
  • affects the central nervous system of the insects
  • examples of insecticides within this group are carbamyl, methomyl, and carbofuran
249
Q

Define Repellants

A
  • not designed to directly eliminate pests
  • main goal: prevent pest-related damage by either repelling them or coaxing them into a trap
250
Q

Define Attractants

A
  • do the opposite job of repellants
  • usually utilize sex pheromones to excite pests and trap them
251
Q

Define Fumigants

A
  • volatile pesticides that harm insects, nematodes, and other animals or plants that threaten stored food or seeds, human settlement, clothing and nursery stock
252
Q

Define Rodenticides

A
  • pesticides dedicated to killing rodents
  • primary targets: mice and rats
253
Q

Define Fungicides

A
  • used to kill and control the fungi population
  • either applied to the seed or directly on the crop, that is, they remain in the plant tissue to provide protection from pathogens and pests
254
Q

Define Industrial Biocides

A
  • useful in neutralizing harmful biological pest
  • can also be used as antifouling agents in industrial pipes to prevent mollusk accumulation or used to preserve lumber
255
Q

Define Herbicides

A
  • chemicals that eliminate weeds that compete with crops for sunlight, soil nutrients, and water
256
Q

2 Types of Herbicides

A
  • Systematic herbicides- enter the plant’s vascular system to tamper with its growth
  • Contact herbicides - eliminate the plant’s parts upon contact
257
Q

Herbicides can also be distinguished by 3 other metrics:

A
  1. Selectivity
  2. Method of Application
  3. Timing of Application
258
Q

2 Classifications of Selectivity of Herbicides

A
  • Selective - prevent the growth of selected plant species without affecting crops
  • Nonselective - affect any plant that it is applied to
259
Q

2 Classifications of Method of Application of Herbicides

A
  • Soil Applied- mainly absorbed through the roots
  • Foliar Applied- absorbed through exposed tissues (leaves) of the weed
260
Q

3 Classifications of Timing of Application of Herbicides

A
  • Preplant- applied before crop planting
  • Pre-emergence- applied emergence of water seedlings
  • Post-emergence- applied after the growth of weeds
261
Q

6 Major Fertilizer Grades

A
  1. Urea
  2. Ammonium Sulfate
  3. Ammonium Phosphate
  4. Di-ammonium phosphate
  5. Complete
  6. Muriate of potash
262
Q

Define Mixed Fertilizers

A
  • contain at least one of the three most important elements in plant nutrition: nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium
    (NPK)
263
Q

2 Types of Fertilizer Granulation

A
  1. Dry Granulation
    * Doesn’t need water or a binder, instead, it relies on high pressure to clump the fertilizer together
  2. Wet Granulation
    * Produces pellets with high moisture content since it needs water or a binder, hence, the product
264
Q

3 Main Components of Perfume

A
  1. Vehicle
  2. Fixatives
  3. Odoriferous Elements
265
Q

Define Vehicle

A

● Used to dissolve and dilute perfume ingredients so they can be applied easily onto skin or clothing.
● Common solvents used in this field include ethanol (C2H5OH), derived from grains or sugar, and diethyl phthalate (DEP-C12H14O4), a synthetic solvent.

266
Q

Define Fixative

A

● Chemicals added to perfumes in order to preserve its scent and prevent it from evaporating too quickly

267
Q

4 Classifications of Fixatives

A
  1. Animal Fixatives
  2. Resinous Fixatives
  3. Essential Oil Fixatives
  4. Synthetic Fixative
268
Q

4 Kinds of Animal Fixatives

A
  1. Castoreum
  2. Civet
  3. Musk
  4. Ambergris
269
Q

Define Castoreum

A
  • From beaver
  • Smells like vanilla with a hint of raspberry
    benzyl alcohol, acetophenone, l-borneol.
    castorin
270
Q

Define Civet

A
  • from perineal glands of civet cats
  • pale-yellow paste that has a distinctive
    smell
  • crude civet has skatole responsible for the
    disagreeable odor
271
Q

What is Civetone?

A

sweet and floral odor

272
Q

Define Musk

A
  • from male musk deer
  • warm subtle scent defined by a complex
    range of powdery, sweet, woodsy and
    earthy aroma impressions caused by
    muskone
273
Q

Define Ambergris

A
  • least used, but probably best known
  • may be white, yellow, brown, black or variegated like marble
274
Q

5 Kinds of Resinous Fixatives

A
  1. Hard Resins
  2. Gums
  3. Balsams
  4. Oleoresins
  5. Resinoids
275
Q

Define Hard Resins

A
  • are solid, brittle, and translucent
    substances that are typically obtained
    from trees through tapping or incisions in
    the bark
  • contain terpenes with a woody, spicy, and
    balsamic aroma
  • myrrh and frankincense
276
Q

Define Gums

A
  • gum arabic and benzoin
  • water soluble substances derived from
    tree and plant exudates
  • have a delicate, sweet aroma and are
    commonly employed as binding agents in
    perfumery.
277
Q

Define Balsams

A
  • Peru balsam and tolu balsam
  • viscous oily substances derived from tree
    bark or trunk
  • have a sweet, warm, vanilla-like aroma
    which is often featured in oriental and
    gourmand fragrances
278
Q

Define Oleoresins

A
  • styrax and opoponax
  • thick, sticky substances derived from tree
    bark or wood
  • possess a strong, balsamic aroma with
    hints of smokey notes; they’re frequently
    featured in masculine and woody
    fragrances
279
Q

Define Resinoids

A
  • labdanum and benzoin resinoid
  • created through solvent extraction of
    natural resins and gums
  • possess a warm, sweet, and amber-like
    odor which makes them popular base
    notes in floral and oriental fragrances.
280
Q

Define Essential Oil Fixatives

A

● Some common essential oils used as fixatives in perfumery include patchouli, sandalwood, vetiver, cedarwood
● Have boiling points between 200-300 degC

281
Q

Define Synthetic Fixative

A

● Can mimic the odor profile of natural fixatives and the scent of animal-derived fixatives, but are typically less expensive and more consistent in quality
● Triethyl citrate, dipropylene glycol and diethyl phthalate

282
Q

Define Odoriferous Elements

A

Also referred to as aromatic compounds or fragrance notes, are the components that give a perfume its characteristic scent profile

283
Q

3 Classifications of Odoriferous Elements

A
  1. Essential Oils
  2. Isolate
  3. Synthetic or Semisynthetic
284
Q

Define Essentil Oils

A

● Complex mixtures of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) produced by plants and extracted from their parts such as flowers, leaves, stems and roots
● Composed of various classes of compounds such as terpenes, terpenoids and phenylpropanoids which give them their characteristic aroma, flavor and biological effects
● Will ignite when exposed to an ignition source such as a flame or spark

285
Q

5 Recovery Process of Essential Oils

A
  1. Maceration
  2. Enfleurage
  3. Extraction with Volatile Solutions
  4. Expression
  5. Distillation with Steam
286
Q

Define Maceration

A
  • a straightforward technique for extracting
    essential oils from plants with a solvent
  • an efficient and low-cost method of
    extracting essential oils from plants
  • may not be as efficient as other extraction
    techniques leading to higher impurities
    and lower concentrations of essential oils
    in the final extract.
287
Q

Define Enfleurage

A
  • a traditional method of extracting
    essential oils from delicate flowers that are
    too fragile for other extraction methods
  • a labor-intensive and time-consuming
    method of extracting essential oils, and it
    is mostly used for rare and expensive
    flowers, such as jasmine and tuberose
288
Q

Define Expression

A
  • also known as cold pressing or mechanical
    pressing
  • involves squeezing or pressing the plant
    material to release its essential oils.
  • typically used for citrus fruits such as
    oranges, lemons, and grapefruits
289
Q

Define Isolate

A

● A single aromatic compound that has been isolated from either natural or synthetic sources.
● Isolates can be employed to add specific notes to a fragrance or enhance certain scents.

290
Q

5 Examples of Isolates and their Sources

A
  1. Citral
  2. Linalool
  3. Eugenol
  4. Isoamyl acetate
  5. Benzyl acetate
291
Q

Define Citral

A

A lemon-scented isolate found in essential oils of lemongrass and lemon myrtle.

292
Q

Define Linalool

A

A floral-scented isolate found in essential oils of lavender, rosewood, and coriander.

293
Q

Define Eugenol

A

A spicy-scented isolate found in the essential oil of clove.

294
Q

Define Isoamyl Acetate

A

A fruity-scented isolate found in banana and pear essential oils.

295
Q

Define Benzyl Acetate

A

An aromatic isolate found in essential oils of jasmine, ylang-ylang and gardenia

296
Q

6 Manufacturing Process of Synthetic/ Semisynthetic

A
  1. Condensation
  2. Esterification
  3. Grignard
  4. Nitration
  5. Oxidation
  6. Miscellaneous/ Others
297
Q

Define Condensation

A

A reaction where two or more molecules combine to create one larger molecule, and remove any smaller ones such as water

298
Q

Define Esterification

A

A chemical reaction in which alcohol and carboxylic acids react to create an ester and water.

299
Q

Define Grignard

A

A chemical reaction in which an organic halide reacts with magnesium metal in anhydrous alcohol to create a Grignard agent.

300
Q

Define Grignard Agent

A

This reagent is useful for synthesizing various organic compounds, such as aldehydes, alcohols, and ketones and it is also used for semisynthetic fragrance compounds, such as alcohols and ketones.

301
Q

Define Nitration

A

A compound containing a benzene ring, such as toluene or benzene, is reacted with a mixture of nitric and sulfuric acids. The reaction results in the substitution of a hydrogen atom on the benzene ring with a nitro group (-NO2).

302
Q

Define Oxidation

A

A chemical reaction in which oxygen is added to an organic compound.
- Citronellol, for example, can be oxidized to make citral. It has a lemon-like smell.

303
Q

Miscellaneous/Others

A

There are many manufacturing processes that can be used to create synthetic and semi-synthetic perfumes and flavor compounds such as hydrogenation, dehydrogenation and sulfonation.

304
Q

Define Flavoring Industry

A

● Produces a range of flavors to enhance food and beverage tastes
● These recipes use both natural and synthetic ingredients, including essential oils for sweet, sour, salty, and bitter tastes
● Like perfume industry industries rely heavily on aromatic compounds for their creations.

305
Q

Manufacture of Natural Fruit Concentrate

A

The water content of the fruit is removed to
create natural fruit concentrates

306
Q

Manufacturing of vanilla flavor (6)

A
  1. Harvesting
  2. Curing
  3. Pre-Treatment: washing, sorting, blanching, freezing
  4. Drying
    ● Sun drying
    ● Oven drying
    ● Artificial dying
  5. Sweetening
  6. Extraction
307
Q

Manufacture of Chocolate and Cocoa

A
  1. Harvesting and Fermentation
  2. Drying
  3. Roasting
  4. Grinding and Pressing
  5. Conching
  6. Tempering
  7. Flavoring and Molding
308
Q

Manufacture of Monosodium Glutamate

A
  1. Fermentation
  2. Acid Hydrolysis
  3. Neutralization
  4. Crystallization
  5. Purification
309
Q

Define Food Additives

A

● Chemical substances added to food to improve its taste, appearance, texture and shelf life.
● They’re widely used in the food industry to enhance sensory qualities of products as well as maintain their quality during storage and transportation.

310
Q

Why are essential oils called “Essential”?

A

Essential oils are called “essential” because they contain the essence of the plant’s fragrance and flavor. They are highly concentrated extracts obtained from various parts of plants such as flowers, leaves, roots, and bark.

311
Q

10 Classifications of Compounds Occurring in Essential Oils

A
  1. Esters
  2. Alcohols
  3. Aldehydes
  4. Acids
    5.Phenols
  5. Ketones
  6. Esters
  7. Lactones
  8. Terpenes
  9. Hydrocarbons
312
Q

Define Fats and Oils

A
  • mixtures of the glycerides of various fatty acids
  • made up of molecules known as triglycerides, which are esters consisting of three fatty acid units connected to glycerol.
313
Q

Define Waxes

A
  • mixed esters of higher polyhydric alcohols, other than glycerol, and fatty acids
314
Q

Define Vegetable Oils

A
  • differ from one another in terms of their fatty acid composition as well as their non glyceridic content which includes phenols, sterols, tocopherols, and squalene.
315
Q

8 Types of Vegetable Oils

A
  1. Cottonseed Oil
  2. Soybean Oil
  3. Linseed Oil
  4. Coconut Oil
  5. Corn Oil
  6. Palm Oil
  7. Peanut Oil
  8. Tung oil
316
Q

Define Cottonseed Oil

A

● Derived from the seeds of the cotton plant syempre
● Has a 2:1 ratio of polyunsaturated and saturated fatty acids
● Cholesterol-free

317
Q

2 Types of Cottonseed Oil Production Processes

A
  1. Oil Pressing Method
    - mechanical squeezing
  2. Solvent Extraction Method
    - extracting cottonseed oil from the treated
    cottonseed cake by the principle of solvent and oildissolving
318
Q

Define Soybean Oil

A
  • produced from the seeds of the soybean plant low in saturated fat and high in unsaturated (healthy) fats
  • rich source of omega-3s which affect
    cardiovascular health and may reduce blood pressure
319
Q

2 Types of Mechanical Oil Pressing

A

● Hot Pressing
- usually done on elevated temperatures of 60-250 deg C
● Cold Pressing
- opposite sa hot pressing, usually at room
temperatures of 20-25 deg C

320
Q

Define Linseed Oil

A
  • also called as flaxseed oil because it is a vegetable oil made from the seeds of flax plant
321
Q

Define Coconut Oil

A
  • a good source of antioxidants, which help
    neutralize damaging molecules called free radicals.
322
Q

Manufacturing Process of Coconut Oil (5)

A

● Copra Drying- hot air of about 75-80 degrees is generated using an air heater and pumped into a hopper using a centrifugal blower.
● Copra Cutting- it is cut into small pieces of about 1 inch size.
● Copra Roasting/Cooking- copra pieces are then roasted for about 1 hour in a steam jacketed vessel with continuous agitation. A bit of steam is also sprayed into copra for better cooking.
● Copra Crushing/Oil Extraction- dried and roasted copra pieces are now fed into an expeller with screw press for mechanical crushing under high pressure.
● Coconut Oil Filtering- oil extracted through expeller will have about 8% sediments. They are separated from oil through a 3 stage filtering process i.e. coarse filtering by vibrating screen, main filtering through filter press and fine filtering through filter press.

323
Q

Define Corn Oil

A
  • has a very high smoke point (the temperature at which oil begins to burn) of about 450°F (232°C), making it ideal for deep-frying foods
324
Q

Manufacturing Processes of Corn Oil (5)

A

● Cleaning and conditioning- the corn kernels are cleaned and prepared for processing.
● Degermination- The germ is separated from the rest of the kernel and this can be done using either dry or wet milling methods.
● Extraction: The oil is extracted from the germ using a mechanical press or solvent extraction. In mechanical pressing, the oil is squeezed out of the germ using pressure. In solvent extraction, a chemical solvent such as hexane is used to extract the oil.
● Refining: The crude oil is then refined to remove impurities, such as free fatty acids, phospholipids, and pigments.
● Packaging: The refined oil is then packaged and shipped for distribution and sale.

325
Q

Define Palm Oil

A
  • semi-solid because it contains roughly 50% saturated fatty acids and 50% unsaturated fatty acids
326
Q

Manufacturing Process of Palm Oil (7)

A
  1. Harvesting
  2. Sterilization
  3. Threshing
  4. Pressing
  5. Clarification
  6. Purification
  7. Fractionation
327
Q

Define Peanut Oil

A
  • Produced by either the hydraulic press or the Anderson expeller from de skinned peanuts.
  • This high heat oil has a smoke point of about 450°F.
  • Peanut oil is also high in monounsaturated fat, and it contains phytosterols that can block absorption of cholesterol.
328
Q

Define Tung Oil

A
  • Produced by harvesting these types of nuts and separating the nuts from their hard outer shells.
  • Then the transparent oil is squeezed from the seeds inside. Dried and pressed yield about twenty percent oil.
329
Q

2 Manufacturing Process for Tung Oil

A
  1. Hydrogenation
    - Process that reduces unsaturated fatty acid
    content of triglycerides by attaching hydrogen atoms at the point of unsaturation in the presence of a catalyst.
    - Accomplishes two things: increased
    melting point of the oil or fat and resistance to oxidation and flavor deterioration.
  2. Deodorization
    - Removes free fatty acids and volatile components present in crude edible oil at this stage of processing. These unwanted substances negatively affect the odor, flavor,
    color and stability of the final product.
330
Q

6 Animal Fats and Oils

A
  1. Neatsfoot oil
  2. Whale Oil
  3. Cod-liver oil
  4. Shark-liver oil
  5. Fish oil
  6. Lard
331
Q

Define Neatsfoot Oil

A

Yellow oil derived from the skin and feet bones of bovine animals

332
Q

Define Whale Oil

A

Oil that has been extracted from a whale’s blubber through the process of boiling strips or slabs of the whale’s blubber and extracting the oil that comes out of it.

333
Q

Define Cod-liver Oil

A

Originally prepared by storing fish in barrels and allowing them to rot until the oil floated to the top.

334
Q

Define Shark-liver Oil

A

Produced from several species of deep sea sharks’ livers. SLO is a major natural source of squalene, a natural organic compound, and alkylglycerols, compounds that may fight cancer

335
Q

Define Fish Oil

A

Comes from many types of fish. It is rich in two important omega-3 fatty acids called eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and
docosahexaenoic acid (DHA).

336
Q

Define Lard

A
  • produced by the rendering of hog fat.
  • lard oil is the most important of the animal oils and is expressed from white grease, an inedible lard. Lard has been fundamentally upgraded by modern chemical conversions, interesterification and isomerization.
337
Q

Define Isomerization Reaction

A
  • formation of isomeric unsaturated fatty acids
  • In the chemical process of isomerization, the number of atoms in a molecule does not change, but the arrangement of the atoms does.
338
Q

Define Interesterification

A

Chemical process that involves rearranging the fatty acids on a triglyceride molecule the fatty acids on the triglyceride molecule are exchanged with fatty acids from another source, such as a different triglyceride or a free fatty acid.

339
Q

5 Types of Waxes

A
  1. Beeswax
  2. Carnauba Wax
  3. Spermaceti
  4. Ozocerite
  5. Paraffin wax
340
Q

Define Beeswax

A

Produced from a gland in the abdomen of
honeybees and is excreted to create the hive itself.

341
Q

Define Carnauba Wax

A
  • acquired from the leaf of the carnauba palm tree
  • serves as a protective layer that shields the leaves from heat, UV rays, and water.
342
Q

Define Spermaceti

A
  • the oil removed from the head cavity and parts of the blubber of the sperm whale is in reality a wax because of its chemical composition.
343
Q

Define Ozocerite

A
  • naturally occurring mineral wax that consists of hydrocarbons, originally derived from veins in sandstones
344
Q

Define Paraffin Wax

A
  • a by-product of heating or distilling petroleum, also known as crude oil.

CPI (3 decks)

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