3.2.3.1 CUE>> Global patterns, significance and growth of urban areas Flashcards
Urbanisation
Urbanisation - increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas
Causes of urbanisation:
- Rural to urban migration —> happens due to push and pull factors
- Pull factors —> lack of services, lack of job opportunities
- Push factors —> better services, better job opportunities
- Natural increase (birth rate higher than death rate) —> many migrants in urban areas are young adults —> more likely to have children —> population increases further —> natural increase contributes to roughly 60% of urban growth
Urbanisation patterns:
- The number of people living in urban areas has increased dramatically since 1945. In 1950, 30% of people lived in urban areas. In 2014, just over 50% lived in towns or cities
Developed:
- Population has only increased slightly since 1945 —> urbanisation began much earlier in the developed world. e.g. during the industrial revolution
Developing:
- Urbanisation is happening at a quicker rate
Consequences of urbanisation:
- Urban sprawl - spread of an urban area into the surrounding countryside
- More car dependant lifestyle leads to increases in fossil fuel consumption —> increases pollution —> impacts health/trigger different microclimate responses
- Loss of farmland —> loss of fresh local food sources —> greater food miles
- More houses —> impermeable surfaces —> flood risk increases
Shortage of housing in LICs:
- Leads to informal settlements —> these settlements have limited access to basic necessities and services —> more likely to be ill —> can’t go to work —> have to continue living in these settlements
- Dharavi slum —> people will build houses for themselves —> slum conditions are poor —> 1000 people sharing a toilet and approximately 14 people living in one room
Shortage of affordable housing in HICs:
- Urban planners have built sky scrapers —> small flats come with social problems —> many people in tokyo face issues with social interaction and spend vast quantities of time by themselves —> birth rate has decreased rapidly to 7.8 births per 1000 population —> creates an ageing population which creates issues —> less people working so less taxes —> less government spending on healthcare which the ageing population need
Lack of urban services:
- When more people move to cities, the demand for services increases —> lack of urban services due to high demand—> ill —> can’t go to work —> can’t pay tax
Unemployment:
- high proportion of people who move to cities are young —> lots of pressure on jobs —> some people unable to find one due to high proportion of people wanting a job
Urban change: deindustrialisation, decentralisation, urban resurgence and the rise of the service economy
Suburbanisation/counter urbanisation - movement of people from urban areas to rural areas
Reasons for suburbanisation/counter urbanisation:
* Larger houses and gardens
* Quieter roads
* Perception of ‘better’ schools
* Perception of fewer visible urban problems of crime, gangs, drugs etc
What has allowed suburbanisation/counter urbanisation to take place:
- Improvements in transport links —> people can commute to work
- Better communications —> people can work from home
Negatives of suburbanisation/counter urbanisation:
- Urban sprawl —> spread of an urban area into the surrounding countryside
- More car dependant lifestyle leads to an increase in fossil fuel consumption —> increases pollution —> impacts health/trigger different microclimate responses
- Loss of farmland —> loss of fresh local food sources —> greater food miles
- Segregation —> wealthier middle-class people may move to the suburbs and those that are left behind are poorer and may include foreign immigrants
Deindustrialisation - decrease in the amount of manufacturing taking place in a country
Causes of deindustrialisation in the UK:
- Cheaper labour and manufacturing costs in countries such as China
- Mechanisation —> cheaper to use machines rather than people
How did it affect the UK?
- Entire industries collapsed e.g. steel industry in sheffield —> caused mass unemployment with 3 million being out of work —> led to the rise of the service economy —> in 2015, the service sector accounted for 77% of the UKs economy
How are job losses different between cities and in cities?
- Between cities —> large cities may have more diverse economies which can make them more resilient to job losses
- Within cities —> inner city areas suffer the most —> most industrial areas are located here
Negatives of deindustrialisation:
- Deindustrialisation —> people unemployed —> less money to spend —> local shops and services get less income —> schools and shops etc start to close
- Deindustrialisation —> people unemployed —> less money to spend —> increase in burglary —> people move out of the area —> services and shops start to close
- Deindustrialisation —> industrial buildings become derelict —> increase in graffiti etc —> people move out of the area —> services and shops start to close
Urban resurgence - regeneration of an area after a period of decline (deindustrialisation) —> movement of people back into the city
How did they try regenerate areas after decline?
- Convert derelict buildings and industrial areas into houses
- Create new jobs
- Enhance the environment through the creation of open green spaces
Deindustrialisation and resurgence in Leeds?
- During the Industrial Revolution, Leeds developed into a major mill town —> In 1950, 55% of the Leeds workforce was employed in manufacturing but by 1960 this had declined to 35% —> jobs lost —> less income —> less money spent in goods/services so shops relocate —> decline of area
- Leeds Trinity opened in 2013 and transformed the centre —> attracted more people into Leeds
- Leeds arena opened —> attracts people into the city
Decentralisation - The movement of population, shops and offices away from urban areas to the suburbs
Negatives of decentralisation:
- Urban sprawl —> spread of an urban area into the surrounding countryside
- More car dependant lifestyle leads to an increase in fossil fuel consumption —> increases pollution —> impacts health/trigger different microclimate responses
- Loss of farmland —> loss of fresh local food sources —> greater food miles
- Attracts ppl to suburb areas —> less ppl in the city —> less demand for goods/services in the city —> city centre shops/services start to close —> urban decline
Regeneration policies
Regeneration policies:
City Challenge - Local authorities competed against each other for government funding to regenerate deprived urban areas
- The Manchester authority won the challenge with their proposal to regenerate Hulme
Issues in Hulme?
- Of the 5,500 dwellings in the Hulme area of Manchester, 98% were council owned
- There was a high number of single parents, and other people with social difficulties. There was some evidence that the local authority had used the area to dump some of its more unfortunate residents
- Perception of Hulme was bad so no one wanted to live there —> area went into decline
Redevelopment?
- 3,000 new homes were built (social - make area more attractive)
- The Moss Side Sports Centre was updated in 2002 and is now a modern facility widely used by the community (social - make area more attractive)
- The main shopping area was totally refurbished, including the addition of an ASDA supermarket (economic - jobs created) (social - make area more attractive)
- New road infrastructure was constructed —> easier to travel to places for work etc —> attracted more people into the area (economic)
- Variation in the types of building —> make the area appear more interesting (environmental)
Successes:
- Hulme’s population has grown by 3.3% since 1992
- Of the original goals of regeneration of Hulme, it is estimated that 80% of them have been achieved
- It was found that crime levels had gone down, with the police reporting a 40% reduction in crimes
Failings:
- Unemployment rates in 2003 remained 5-6x higher than the national average
- The bid was awarded based on the most attractive ideas rather than based on need (negative of city challenge)
- A lot of deprived areas didn’t receive any funding (negative of city challenge)
New deal for communities - 10 year strategies that were established to help the 39 most deprived regions of the country
Case study:
- Aston, inner city Birmingham —> identified as one of the 39 most deprived regions in the country
Issues in Aston?
- Poor health (poor diet inherited from the cultural background)
- High levels of unemployment —> in 2002, 36% of the working age population was unemployed —> predominantly muslim population —> lifestyle requirements such as friday afternoon prayers and english may not be their first language —> not easily employable —> if unemployed then no money —> area goes into decline
What was done?
- £4 million was spent on healthcare —> life expectancy is improving in Aston
- Health centre has introduced cooking clubs —> gives advice to people about healthier meals
- Project was set a target to help 400 unemployed people find work —> they managed to help around 1000 people through work experience programmes and a guidance team
Issues?
- The increased development in cities resulted in town centres being rundown —> more time and money centred on cities instead of towns —> moves the problem to another area
UDCs - In the 1980s, the government set up the UDCs to try and reverse inner city decline —> they set up the LDDC
- In the 19th century, Londons port was one of the busiest in the world but by the end of the 1950s, it was in significant decline with many of the docks derelict and abandoned
Why did the docks go into decline and why did the area go into decline?
- Containerisation —> few dockers were needed to lift containers from ships —> reduced demand for workforce —> fewer jobs in area —> travel further for work —> transport services to the rest of london were poor —> fewer people working —> less income —> less spent on goods and services —> shops started to close —> area went into decline
- Environmental quality of area was bad
Positives of LDDC:
Environmental:
- Planting of 200,000 trees
Economic:
- Unemployment had fallen from 14% to around 7%
- Transport improved —> docklands light railway —> carried 35,000 passengers a week —> improved accessibility
Social:
- 22,000 new homes built
- £100 million spent on health, education and job training
Issues of LDDC:
- Despite increased accessibility to jobs, dockers did not have the skills required
Enterprise Zones - In 1981, enterprise zones were established in areas with high unemployment —> they offered lower taxes to businesses and also eased planning restrictions
- High unemployment —> less money to spend on goods and services —> increase in burglary —> people move out of the area —> shops and services start to close —> area goes into decline —> enterprise zones
Positives?
- By 1990, the enterprise zones housed over 5000 companies, employing more than 125 000 people
Issues?
- Tax reductions encouraged many existing companies to move their premises and staff to the enterprise zones which limited the number of new jobs created
Example?
- The Metro Centre Gateshead was established as an enterprise zone on an old industrial site (a power station) in which the land was bought for just £100,000
Megacity and world cities
Megacity - a city with over 10 million people
- In 1950, there were 2 megacities - tokyo and new york
- By 2014, there were 28 megacities
Why do megacities grow?
- Rural-urban migration and natural increase
Positives?
- Better access to education, healthcare and transportation due to larger populations
- Economic growth —> companies choose to build their headquarters in cities with a high number of skilled workers—> leads to economic growth —> on average megacities produce 2-3 times more GDP than other cities
- Cultural diversity —> lots of different cultures —> diversity attracts tourists/increased tolerance
Problems in megacities?
- More pollution —> impacts health
- More waste
- More congestion
- Shortage of housing
HICs:
- More money —> urban planners are often able to cope with pollution levels better e.g. by planting more trees, implementing more sustainable transport options, congestion charge
- Urban areas are growing much slower so controlling pollution levels is much more manageable
LICs (mumbai):
- Limited funding so issues like pollution are harder to address —> in 2015, the central pollution control board found that over half of india’s rivers were polluted —> impacts human health e.g. diseases like cholera spread —> affects ability to work and gain income
- Urban areas are growing at a faster rate so controlling pollution is harder
Shortage of housing
HICs (tokyo):
- Urban planners have built sky scrapers —> small flats come with social problems —> many people in tokyo face issues with social interaction and spend vast quantities of time by themselves —> birth rate has decreased rapidly to 7.8 births per 1000 population —> creates an ageing population which creates issues —> less people working so less taxes —> less government spending on healthcare which the ageing population need
LICs (mumbai):
- Dharavi slum —> people will build houses for themselves —> slum conditions are poor —> 1000 people sharing a toilet and approximately 14 people living in one room
Processes associated with urbanisation
Processes Associated with Urbanisation
Social:
- People from different social and cultural backgrounds migrate into the city, making cities more diverse —> this can make people more tolerant of others, creating a welcoming environment that attracts more migrants// However, it can also cause segregation
- Increased access to different jobs, education, healthcare services etc —> increases quality of life
- Urbanised areas develop into cultural hubs because they gather so many activities in one place —> e.g. galleries, museums, theatres, shopping centres etc —> increases quality of life for those living in the city
Economic:
- Cities attract people from rural areas because they offer more job opportunities, and jobs are often better paid
- As the urban population increases, businesses grow in size and become more profitable. This leads to more jobs and wage rises
- Economic inequalities may arise due to unsustainable urbanisation —> Overpopulation and lack of resources can cause many of the population to struggle maintaining a satisfactory quality of life
- Urbanisation leads to a shift in employment from primary sector to tertiary sector jobs —> as ppl move to the city, demand for services increases
Technological:
* Urban areas become centres for technological advancement e.g. Silicon Valley —> attracts people because due to highly paid jobs
* New technology is often introduced into cities first as there is a higher demand for it e.g. the development of ‘Smart Cities’
Political:
* Political institutions are almost always in the capital
* Political movements are usually more prevalent in cities e.g. protests
* Urban growth may lead to increased inequalities between rich and poor people. A new ‘working class’ emerges, often made up of people who work in manufacturing industries —> New political movements emerge to represent the ‘working class’ population —> voice their concerns on issues that affect urban life e.g. poor sanitation, quality of housing, working conditions in factories
Demographic:
- People from different social and cultural backgrounds migrate into the city, making cities more diverse
- Many young people are attracted by jobs and entertainment. They often choose to stay and raise families in the city, so cities tend to have a younger population than rural areas
- Older people tend to move away from cities into the suburbs in search of a better quality of life, altering the demographic of urban areas
Urban form
Urban form - the characteristics that make up a city including it’s size and shape, population density and how the city is arranged
Where were cities initially established?
- Good water supplies
- Fertile soil for growing food
- Natural resources (wood for fires)
- Good defensive positions (on top of a hill)
Human factors influencing urban form:
- Rapid population growth - changes the form of a city leading to urban sprawl// land use may change from recreational to residential to meet growing pressure
- Globalisation - whilst land use patterns of a developed world city are often laid down from historical beginnings, changes to land use do occur. Globalisation and the decline of manufacturing industries in the developed world, has led to factory closure in many cities and the land use then changes
- Tourism - shapes urban form by introducing the development of hotels, attractions, and transportation to accommodate for visitors
- Land value - bid rent theory —> land generally more expensive in the CBD but gets cheaper as you move out to rural areas —> land in the CBD is generally used for retail as companies can afford the land whereas land on the outskirts of cities are used for residential purposes —> buildings are generally higher rise and densely packed in the CBD but more spaced out as you move out of the centre
- Urban planning - deindustrialisation has occurred in developed countries, many cities have large brownfield areas where the factories once were. Urban planners then build new attractive office blocks with nearby amenities or new housing to attract families back into the city// urban growth in developing countries is caused by the unplanned expansion of slums (slums are scattered around in different places so the form is quite random), whereas planned developments often include open space and leisure facilities etc
Physical factors influencing urban form:
- Topography - Informal settlements are often found on steep land because flat, more desirable areas are typically occupied by wealthier residents —> e.g. Rocinha is built on a steep hillside —> this is due to the limited affordable land// Large flat areas encourage low density developments because there’s lots of space to build on —> wealthier people may live here —> as a result, it will encourage some businesses to locate there
- Land type - Some ground surfaces are more difficult or expensive to build on so this may affect land use e.g. swamps and wetlands can limit urban growth —> not that many houses will be located in these areas —> if no houses are located here then no businesses will want to locate here —> affects urban form as size of urban area is relatively small
- Water - Cities often develop near water sources for drinking, transportation, and trade, with rivers and coastlines —> this influences the location of buildings, roads, and parks// Water bodies can divide cities, creating distinct neighbourhoods e.g. New York and Brooklyn// Water can enhance a city’s aesthetic appeal, prompting urban planners to design recreational spaces around them —> affects urban form// Coastlines limit expansion in certain directions
- Natural resources - Areas rich in resources often attract industries, leading to industries locating around these resources
Land use patterns in developed and developing countries:
Developed:
- Tend to have a CBD which is surrounded by housing —> bid rent theory —> land generally more expensive in the CBD but gets cheaper as you move out to rural areas —> Housing is typically high density in inner city areas —> Residents are often poorer and the number of ethnic minorities is higher —> The housing tends to be terraced housing. They are old and tend to not have been refurbished. Many will have damp problems, inefficient heating and the result is that ill-health is more likely and life expectancy is significantly lower for people than for those living in the suburbs// Residential areas are less dense and have more open space in rural areas—> Residents are generally wealthy and the proportion of people from ethnic minorities tends to be low// Whilst services will be provided throughout the city, there is a tendency for resource decisions to favour services in the more affluent areas. Often school and health provision is underfunded in the poorer areas, which exacerbates the social problems that people living there already face
Developing:
- CBD is surrounded by housing —> bid rent theory —> land generally more expensive in the CBD but gets cheaper as you move out to rural areas —> Land value is highest around the city centre —> housing is expensive and residents are wealthy —> Surrounding the high cost housing is often a zone of medium cost housing —> Land value is very low on the outskirts of cities —> Informal housing is built there —> Most residents have poorly paid jobs and poverty levels are high —> Difficult to get out of poverty due to limited access to transport and limited job opportunities
- Many developing cities have grown rapidly over a short period of time —> growth has occurred as a result of rural-urban migration. The wealthy housing makes up only a small percentage of the total and these areas are often gated communities for the security of the residents. In contrast, many of the poorer people live in squatter settlements. These settlements are frequently illegal homes, with limited sanitation, water, basic amenities - and are overcrowded. As a result, diseases are common and life expectancy is low. The people living here often work in the informal tertiary economy. As these squatter settlements continue to grow due to rapid numbers of people moving in from the rural areas, further issues expand. Due to these settlements being illegal, governments will rarely provide services so waste and polluted ground becomes a problem. This further increases the risk of disease within the area. Due to the rapid growth of developing world cities, factories are established with few health and safety regulations attached. This also leads to poor air quality as well as unsafe working conditions, which contributes to reduced life expectancy.
New urban landscapes:
Town centre mixed developments:
- Areas where land use is mixed —> luxury flats, offices, shops and entertainment facilities can all be found in one place —> promotes sustainable living by reducing the need for extensive commuting e.g. covent garden, london
- Creates a diverse and inclusive living environment —> people of all ages and backgrounds etc —> greater social integration —> increased tolerance —> reduces social segregation
Cultural and heritage quarters:
- The development of cultural and heritage quarters has regenerated areas —> e.g. more employment opportunities and increased reputation of area has caused more people to move into these areas —> pushes up house prices —> drives original residents out as they can no longer afford increasing house prices —> economic inequality
- For example, the cultural quarter in Southampton includes the SeaCity Museum —> tells us about the city’s maritime history
Fortress developments:
- Fortress landscapes have reduced crime levels —> for example, in Hulme, homes and offices were built with large windows facing fields —> fewer crime levels —> attracts businesses and homeowners into the area —> drives up property prices —> only affluent people can afford to live here —> rich people concentrated in one area —> better education —> better opportunities —> inequality widens
Gentrified areas:
- Gentrified areas are places where wealthier residents move into poorer, rundown areas and improve the housing —> improves rundown area so services start to locate here etc
- Pushes original residents out as cost of living increases —> social segregation between rich and poor —> poor concentrated in one area —> schools are likely to be below average in poorer areas —> worse exam performance —> lack of job opportunities —> lack of money —> difficult to get out of the cycle —> widens inequality
- Low property prices —> residents with higher incomes move in —> they improve the property —> attract food/drink businesses —> improve area —> property prices increase e.g. chapel allerton, leeds
Edge cities:
- Concentration of commercial and residential developments on the outskirts of cities
- Can lead to social segregation —> For example, edge cities in LA mean that poorer residents with limited choice remain in inner city areas where unemployment and crime rates are high. Whereas edge cities such as Anaheim have larger homes with retail opportunities
Characteristics of post modern western cities:
- Multiple centres (multiple CBDs) with different purposes e.g. technology, retail, heritage rather than a single centre for everything
- A focus on tertiary and quaternary sector
- Less uniform architecture —> buildings have a wide range of styles e.g. in London, buildings such as the Gherkin and Cheesegrater are examples of post-modern architecture
- High levels of diversity —> high levels of segregation and polarisation
Social and economic inequality
Urban climate
Urban drainage
Urban drainage:
- When precipitation occurs, the vegetation acts as a barrier and intercepts the rainfall. This stops the rapid saturation of the soil which could result in flash flooding. When intercepted, vegetation then stores some of the water as stemflow and gradually the water will infiltrate into the soil and travel as throughflow into the river system. These natural controls upon the water cycle are interrupted and altered when an area is urbanised
- Concrete and tarmac surfaces are impermeable. When precipitation hits these surfaces in urban areas, water collects on the ground as puddles and then runs off straight into city drainage systems, to be fed into a river. Surface run-off becomes the dominant transfer in the urban water cycle
- While this removes the problem of water in urban areas, the local river receives a greater discharge much quicker than it would do prior to urban growth. This can lead to localised flooding in urban areas and can be very costly to city authorities, which will have to repair affected infrastructure.
Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems (SUDS)
As a result of the flooding threat to cities and the impacts of increased runoff, SUDS aims to provide drainage solutions that look for an alternative to channelling water directly into the river system
- During a storm event, significant amounts of water can accumulate from rainfall, increasing the risk of flooding. To manage this, large man-made ponds are created to temporarily store excess stormwater. These ponds hold back the water, preventing it from immediately overwhelming drainage systems and causing floods
- Bioswales (vegetated trenches) —> allow runoff to be collected —> Water slowly infiltrates into the soil. They are also used to treat pollution as they filter water before it enters the soil. This ensures that river water quality is maintained
- Urban planning: buildings are constructed to intercept run off water by collecting it on roofs. Instead of allowing rainwater to flow directly into drains and contribute to potential flooding, rainwater is captured and stored. The harvested water can then be reused for various purposes, such as irrigating gardens, or even for non-potable domestic uses like flushing toilets, washing clothes, or cleaning. Green roofs are also encouraged where vegetation will then return some of the water back to the atmosphere through the process of evapotranspiration. Permeable Pavements have small gaps in between to allow infiltration —> infiltration increases —> surface run off decreases —> flood risk decreases
Urban drainage case study
Cheong Gye Cheon is a natural river flowing west to east through the centre of Seoul
In 2003, a $281 million scheme was launched to restore the river —> highway concrete was dismantled to create a 5.8km green pedestrian corridor
Prior to the project, the river had been covered by a highway, which contributed to significant environmental problems such as traffic congestion and air pollution. The concrete highway also acted as a barrier to urban development.
Successes:
- Cheonggyecheon river has become a tourist attraction —> 18.1 million visitors by 2008 (economic)
- Removal of large numbers of cars and more pedestrianisation activity in the area —> -4.5% reduction in UHIE (environmental)
- Seoul is modern city with limited greenery —> vulnerable to the urban heat island effect. The introduction of green spaces and a flowing water body helped cool the surrounding area by absorbing heat and providing shade, thus mitigating the heat island effect (-4.5% reduction in the UHIE) (environmental)
- Seoul is vulnerable to monsoon rains, which can lead to flooding, particularly in urban areas where water cannot easily penetrate the ground due to paved surfaces. By restoring the Cheonggyecheon River and improving the city’s water catchment system, authorities created a natural drainage system that could better manage stormwater runoff and reduce flood risk (environmental)
- Before the restoration, residents were more than twice as likely to suffer from respiratory disease as those in other parts of the city (social)
- School children have access to a valuable educational resource (social)
- By removing the highway and restoring the river, the city reduced air pollution and created green spaces. The presence of more vegetation and open water helped purify the air and make the city more liveable (-10% in air pollution) (social)
Failures:
- Expensive
- The scheme gentrified the area —> more desirable place to live —> house prices increased —> forced 1000s of people to move away as they couldn’t afford increasing prices —> low income households tend to be less educated so they may neglect the environment —> pushes the problems of waste pollution to poorer places where funds may not be sufficient to effectively manage these problems
- 80,000 tonnes of waste was generated from the project —> waste is expensive and difficult to get rid of —> may be left in other areas —> moves the problem downstream from neighbouring urban areas
- Although waste generated was recycled e.g. 100% of scrap iron and steel was recycled —> not possible for LICs due to insufficient funding —> water management only achievable in HICs
Waste in urban areas
In urban areas, waste is an issue as there is a limited amount of space in which to dispose of waste so it can become an environmental problem. The growing population in urban areas also emphasises the problem as there is a demand for more consumer goods and limited available space within the city. The World Bank has estimated that by 2100 the growing global urban population will be producing three times as much waste as it does today.
Waste is generated from many sources:
Residential waste
- This mainly consists of food waste, plastics, cardboard and paper. In the developed world this is becoming a bigger issue as the growth of a consumer society leads to the purchase and disposal of more goods. In the developing world this is also an issue, but less so as people often live less ‘disposable’ lifestyles. Often in slum or unofficial settlements without adequate sanitation or waste disposal units, this can become a large health issue for the residents as well an environmental issue
Industrial waste
- Industrial waste is defined as waste generated by manufacturing or industrial processes. Industrial waste can be hazardous e.g. chemicals and pesticides
Commercial
- Waste produced by businesses like restaurants or shops e.g. paper, plastics, food, packaging
Lifestyles and attitudes and their impact upon waste
- Waste is an issue in both developed and developing world urban areas. The type of waste is the main difference. In the developed world where many people are wealthy, people produce large volumes of consumer waste. This waste is often transported to disposal sites, such as landfills or incineration plants, which are typically located outside urban areas to avoid the environmental and health impacts within the city. Additionally, some developed countries export their waste to other nations, particularly developing countries, where the waste can be processed for economic gain. While this can create economic opportunities in the receiving countries, it often leads to environmental and health issues, as the waste management infrastructure in these countries may not be adequate to handle large volumes of imported waste safely. Thus, while developed countries generate large amounts of consumer waste, they often externalize the problem by moving waste to areas outside the city or even to other countries.
- In developing world cities, waste is not regarded as an environmental problem but as a potential resource. In squatter settlements, where waste is left on the street and people live their lives surrounded by this waste, the economic potential of waste is greater than concern for the environmental and health implications that it holds. For example, people can become waste pickers - collect and sort through the waste, looking for materials that can be sold or recycled. This helps them earn a living.
Approaches to waste management
Unregulated disposal
- Unregulated waste disposal is an issue in many cities across the world - waste is dumped in places that aren’t official disposal sites
- In developing world cites where environmental laws are less structured, many large organisations will release liquid and solid waste into local water courses. As well as damaging ecosystems, it also contaminates water —> can lead to ill-health for local people —> impact life expectancy
- In the developed world, illegal dumping from industrial sources in cities is still an issue but not to the same extent as in the developing world due to the better regulated environmental laws. Most companies dispose of their waste in the appropriate way, not only to avoid heavy fines but to maintain a high perception of environmental stewardship with their customers
Recycling - converting waste into new products
- In the developed world cities there has been an increase in the amount and range of materials that are being recycled rather than being sent to landfill. Materials such as paper and cardboard are regularly recycled. This has a positive environmental effect due to the reduced landfill space required and also reduces the need to exploit additional natural resources
- In the developing world, unregulated recycling takes place e.g. waste pickers - collect and sort through the waste, looking for materials that can be sold or recycled. This helps them earn a living.
Negatives?
- Recycling requires waste to be separated and categorised —> some people cannot be bothered
- Requires construction of new facilities to process waste —> construction leads to be more air pollution and more GHG/ construction can be expensive
Recovery
In developed world cities in particular, recovery takes place. This is where instead of disposing of waste, the original material is reused for another purpose (focuses on new uses of materials) —> reduces the amount of waste going to landfill
Incineration
- Incineration is a waste treatment process that involves burning waste. Incineration of waste materials converts the waste into ash, gas, and heat. Burning waste can emit greenhouse gases/ release toxic chemicals into the air —> environmental and health impacts. In some cases, the heat generated by incineration can be used to generate electric power and this can be a positive impact as it reduces the need for fossil fuel powered stations.
Burial (landfill)
- Leads to environmental issues —> As waste decomposes, it can produce methane gas, which contributes to global warming. Landfills can also contaminate surrounding land with chemicals and toxins and attract vermin, posing health risks. However, many landfill sites in the developed world now recognise that the decomposition of organic waste leads to the release of methane gas, which is now more likely to be collected and used as an energy source.
Submergence - dumping waste under water
- Submerged waste can damage ecosystems e.g. animals can be harmed if they swallow or get tangled in plastic waste
Trade
- Waste can be bought and sold by countries e.g. developed countries may pay developing countries to take their hazardous waste —> developing countries may not dispose of hazardous waste safely —> damage local environments e.g. air pollution —> damages human health
Facts about waste:
- The average person in the UK produces 517kg of household waste each year
- Waste is estimated to account for 5% of global greenhouse gas emission
- Globally, waste increases by about 7% each year
Impacts of increasing waste generation?
- Cost —> The cost of collecting and treating waste are high
- Collection —> Many city authorities are struggling to collect increasing quantities of urban waste. In 2012 the World Bank found that 30-60% of urban solid waste in LICs is uncollected
- Pollution —> Impacts air/water quality —> impacts health —> diarrhoea and cholera
- Space —> Cities are running out of landfill space so rubbish is left in public places e.g. rivers —> contaminates water —> water pollution
London and Mumbai managing waste?
London:
- London produces enough waste every year to fill 1500 olympic sized pools
Managing waste?
- Reduce single use plastic water —> partnered with thames water to install a network of more than 100 drinking water fountains across london
- Helping businesses reduce food waste —> FoodSave have supported over 200 food organisations in London to prevent food waste
Mumbai:
- Increasing population in Mumbai produces more waste —> e.g. in the neighbourhood of Chembur, waste in open rubbish dumps are burnt —> air pollution —> impacts health —> 25% of deaths in Chembur between 2008 and 2010 were caused by respiratory problems
Managing waste?
- Clean up Mumbai campaign —> cleaning up streets and educating people about how to recycle + dispose waste to limit environmental damage
- Waste pickers —> sort though piles of waste and separate the different materials —> less rubbish ends up in landfills and more is recycled
Sustainable city
Ecological footprint- total area of land and water required to produce everything a population consumes and absorb the waste produced
What does ecological footprint depend on?
- Wealth - consumption and waste production is higher in HICs e.g. higher disposable income —> increased consumption —> increased ecological footprints
- Size of city - compact cities are easier to travel around on foot or by bike —> reduce pollution —> decreases ecological footprint
- Transport - Some urban areas more efficient public transport, which reduces the size of their ecological footprint
- Increased access to healthcare —> longer life expectancy —> people work and commute for longer in life and travel in retirement —> increased ecological footprints
Dimensions of sustainability
- Natural sustainability - considers how successfully the environment is managed e.g. waste is minimal, emissions are controlled, and renewable energy is used
- Physical sustainability - ability for the city’s resources to support current and future populations e.g. good housing, transport, and amenities should be available to all residents
- Social sustainability - ensuring the residents of cities have a good quality of life, with access to public services, good living conditions, and leisure activities
- Economic sustainability - ability for a city to grow economically, and its ability to continue to grow for future generations without causing any negative effects e.g. access to well paid jobs
- Sustainability includes the idea of liveability - measures how well residents can enjoy a high quality of life e.g. job opportunities, access to services (like schools, healthcare, and police), safety, sanitation and living conditions
Challenges for creating sustainable urban environments?
- In LICs especially, cities do not have enough money to invest in expensive sustainable ways of living e.g. changing transport to be renewable etc
- Fast urbanisation rates makes it difficult to meet the needs of an ever-growing population
- Lifestyle habits need to change - many do not want to change as they are comfortable
What makes sustainable development of urban areas easier than rural areas?
- People are more densely concentrated in cities than in rural areas —> provision of services e.g. public transport is easier and cheaper
- Governments may invest more in urban sustainability than rural sustainability —> urban sustainability benefits more people
Strategies to Develop Sustainable Cities:
* Reducing waste
* Reducing number of cars on roads - constructing new cycle lanes, introducing park and ride schemes and improving public transport —> emits less CO2 than cars
* Green space - Green spaces such as green roofs or parks can reduce the effects of pollution or flooding, as well as making the area more attractive and pleasant for its residents. This improves the city’s physical and natural sustainability as well as its social sustainability
* Efficiency of buildings - Urban structures can be made more efficient, which enhances the sustainability of cities. Houses have to be water efficient —> e.g. reusing rain water// in Cape Town, South Africa, water pressure was reduced so that showers etc would use less water. Smart meters can also be installed so people can monitor their usage. Houses have to be built to be energy efficient —> can be done through insulation and the use of renewable energy sources e.g. solar panels
Sustainable city case study
Curitiba case study- sustainable city
Curitiba location?
- South East of Brazil around 1000km from Rio de Janeiro
Issues with urban growth?
- Lots of cars on roads —> increases fossil fuel consumption —> increases pollution —> trigger different microclimate responses/impacts health
- Unemployment—> high proportion of people who move to cities are young —> lots of pressure on jobs —> some people unable to find one due to high proportion of people wanting a job
- Lack of urban services —> when more people move to cities, the demand for services increases —> lack of urban services due to high demand —> ill —> can’t go to work —> can’t pay tax
- Shortage of housing —> leads to informal settlements
What has been done to make the city sustainable?
Transport
- Central bus lane —> speeds up journey
- Bendy buses —> boosted number of passengers per bus to 4000 per day
- Bus doors are wider and open directly into the tube —> maximises use for all types of users// faster loading and unloading on bus —> cuts travel times —> more attractive option
(lots of cars on roads)
Parks and open space
- Curitiba has 4x the green space recommended —> trees take in CO2 —> better air quality
- Curitiba has 4x the green space recommended —> interception increases —> less flooding —> reduces damage to infrastructure —> helps save money and resources —> more sustainable
Housing and social projects
- Site and service schemes —> residents are trained to build the houses —> adequate conditions —> electricity, sewage and running water —> not ill so able to go to work (shortage of housing)
Waste
- Green exchange —> Curitiba reuses 2/3 of its waste —> people in slums collect rubbish + the council pay for the weight using fruit and veg —> council gains as people collect rubbish in narrower roads where the councils collection trucks can’t get to —> saves on expensive road widening// generates jobs and reduces landfill (unemployment)
