3.2.3 Research Methods - .1 Scientific processes

Question 1

What is an aim?

Answer 1

An aim is a general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate the purpose of their study.

Question 2

What is a hypothesis : directional and non directional?

Answer 2

A hypothesis is a statement which clearly states the relationship of the aim that you are investigating.
The hypothesis can either be non-directional or directional.
~A directional hypotheses states the direction of the differences or the relationship. For example whether differences are higher, lower faster, slower, more or less.
~A non directional hypotheses does not state the direction of the difference, just that there is a difference

Question 3

What are dependent and independent variables?

Answer 3

~ The IV is the aspect of the experiment which has been manipulated by the researcher ( 2 group)
~ The DV is the aspect of the study which is measured by the researcher and has been caused by a change to the IV.

All other variables that could affect the DV should be carefully controlled so that the researcher is able to confidently conclude that the effect on the DV was caused by only the IV.
In experiments the IV and DV should be operationalised. (clearly defining the variables in terms of how they are being measured.)

Question 4

What are extraneous and confounding variables?

Answer 4

~An extraneous variable refers to any other variable which is not the IV that affects the DV and does not vary systematically with the IV. Examples are :lighting in the lab,age of participants, gender etc. These variables COULD affect the results of the study is not controlled.
~ A confounding variable is a variable other than the IV which has an effect on the DV.
This variable does affect the results as it was not controlled.

Question 5

What are participant and situational variables?

Answer 5

-Participant variables - Any individual differences between the participants that could affect the DV such as age, IQ and gender.
-Situational variables - any feature of the experimental situation (set up) that might affect the DV such as timings, word use, dosage etc

Question 6

What are demand characteristics?

Answer 6

Any cue from the researcher or research situation that may reveal the aim of the study and change participant’s behaviour.

Question 7

What are investigator effects?

Answer 7

Any influence from the researcher’s behaviour, either unconsciously or unintentional that influences the outcome of any research they are conducting

Question 8

What methods can be used to control the effects of extraneous variables?

Answer 8

~Randomisation- The use of chance when designing investigations to control the effects of bias from investigator effects. E.g deciding the order of conditions, the selection of participants e.t.c.
~Standardisation- using the exact same formalised procedures and instructions for every single participant involved in the research process. This allows there to eliminate non-standardised instructions as being possible extraneous variables.

Question 9

What is a laboratory experiment + features ?

Answer 9

-takes place in a highly controlled environment where extraneous and confounding variables can be controlled where possible, the participants know they’re in an experiment but may not know why they are in the experiment
The IV is manipulated and the effect on DV is measured

Question 10

Strengths and weaknesses of laboratory experiment

Answer 10

➕- high control over EVs, so the effect of the EV‘s can be minimised, The researcher can be sure the IV will be causing the DV ( high internal validity)
➕- study can easily be replicated, due to the high control EVs are less likely so the findings can be confirmed supporting their validity. This type of study has high reliability.
➖- lack generalisability, the artificial tasks and environment means that participants behaviour may not be natural and therefore can’t be generalised to every day life. (low ecological validity)
➖-demand characteristics may be a problem and this can affect the results.

Question 11

What is a field experiment ?

Answer 11

• takes place in a everyday natural setting, not in a lab.
• the IV is measured and the effects of the DV is recorded

Question 12

Strengths and weaknesses of field experiments

Answer 12

➕- has higher mundane realism then other types of experiments as the environment is more realistic. Therefore, participants are likely to behave more natural so results may be more generalisable.
➕- participants are unaware of being studied, so they are less likely to show demand characteristics, so the study has a greater external validity.
➖- there are ethical issues, as participants do not know they are in this study they may not have given informed consent, this is an invasion of participants privacy, which raises ethical issues.
➖- lack of control of EVs so it is harder to establish if the IV causes the DV.

Question 13

What is a natural experiment?

Answer 13

The researcher uses a pre-existing independent variable, psychologist study events that have already happened. The effects of this natural IV is still measured by the DV. The IV is not manipulated by the researcher.

Question 14

Strengths and weaknesses of natural experiments

Answer 14

➕- high external validity, natural experiments involve real-world issues. This means the findings are more relevant to real experiences.
➕ -there are opportunities for topics that would be hard to artificially test. Search of studies of children raised away from biological parents
➖- these opportunities happen rarely this reduces the opportunity for research and may limit the scope for generalising findings to other similar situations
➖- participants are not randomly allocated this means that there may be participant variables which are hard to control so we are not certain if the IV affect the DV.

Question 15

What is a quasi experiment?

Answer 15

The IV is based on existing differences between people, e.g. age, or gender, no one manipulates the IV it is a naturally occurring difference

Question 16

Strength and weaknesses of quasi-experiments

Answer 16

➕- it is carried out under controlled conditions. Therefore, the researcher is able to repeat the study and check for reliability.
➖-participants are not randomly allocated so then maybe participant variables which are hard to control so we are not certain if the IV affect the DV
➖-The researcher does not manipulates the IV, so we cannot be certain that any change in the DV is due to the IV.

Question 17

What are the experimental designs that can be used?

Answer 17

Experimental designs-The way participants are arranged in relation to the different conditions of the experiment. There are 3 ways :
~independent groups - involves different groups of participants in each condition of the experiment (the IV)
~repeated measures - involves the same group of participants taking part in all conducting of the experiment.
~Matches pairs- involves different groups of participants Being used, but they are related to each other by being paired on participant variables that much of the experiment ( variables that may affect the DV)

Question 18

What are Order effects?

Answer 18

When participants are testedmore than once, as in repeated measures design, which may lead to better performance to practice or worse performance, due to boredom or fatigue

Question 19

Strengths and weaknesses of independent groups

Answer 19

➕-There are no order effects presented as participants are only tested once so cannot become bored this controls CV.
➕-Participants are less likely to guess the aims of the study (demand characteristics are eliminated) so higher realism.
➖-less economical, You need more participants than other designs to gather the same amount of data. So more Time is spent recruiting, which is expensive.
➖- no control over participant variables so differences in participants in the various conditions can cause changes to the DV
⬆️⬆️- this can be solved through random allocation as it ensures that each participant has the same chance of being in one condition of the IV as another.

Question 20

Strengths and weaknesses of repeated measures.

Answer 20

➕- Eliminates participant variables as the person in both conditions has the same characteristics which controls CV.
➕-Fewer participants needed, so it is not as time consuming finding and using them.
➖- Order effects presented e.g. boredom may mean in the second condition done the participant does not do as well on task. Which reduces the validity of the results.
➖- participants may guess the aim and change their behaviour, which will also reduce the results validity.
⬆️⬆️- counterbalancing ( when half of the participants do conditions in one order and the other half do it in an opposite order) can be used to avoid order effects.

Question 21

Strengths and weaknesses of Matched pairs

Answer 21

➕- No order effects. As participants are only tested once, this enhances the results validity.
➕-participant variables are eliminated as the participants are matched on a variable which is relevant to the experiment, this enhances the validity of the results.
➖-Time consuming and expensive to match participants.
➖- a large pool of potential participants is needed which can be hard to get.
➖- Difficult to know which variables are appropriate for the participants to be matched.

Question 22

Outline 5 sampling techniques.

Answer 22

-Random sampling, systematic sampling, opportunity sampling, stratified sampling and volunteer sampling

Question 23

Define The terms : population, target population, sample, and generalisation.

Answer 23

-Population - A large group of people in society.
-Target population- The group of people you are interested in studying.
-Sample- a smaller group of individuals within the target population that are used in the study.
-Generalisation- The sample that is drawn, which should be representative of the population

Question 24

What is random sampling? how can it be done? and evaluate A strength and weakness

Answer 24

This method gives every person in the target population, an equal chance of being selected.
This can be done by using the hat method or assigning a number to each member and then selecting using a random number generator.
➕- unbiased, so CVs/EVs are controlled, which enhances internal validity.
➖- time-consuming and difficult to complete a list of population

Question 25

What is systematic sampling? how can it be done? and evaluate a strength and a weakness.

Answer 25

-Participants are selected from a target group using a set pattern.
-A predetermined system is used whereby every nth member is selected from the sampling frame.
➕- unbiased/objective - The first item is usually selected at random
➖- time-consuming, difficult to complete a list of the population.

Question 26

What is stratified sampling? how can it be done?and evaluate a strength and weakness.

Answer 26

• The target population is divided into subsets ( strata) and a random sample is taken from these.
  -the strata are identified then the relative percentages of the subgroups in the population are reflected in the sample.
  ➕-representative method. The characteristics of the target population are represented, so generalisability is more likely than other methods.
  ➖- complete representation of the target population is not possible as strata cannot reflect all the ways in which people are different

Question 27

What is opportunity sampling? how can it be done? and evaluate a strength and weakness

Answer 27

-selecting anyone who is available from the target population, and will take part ( simplest form of sampling )
- ask people nearby to take part such as students in your class or people in public
➕- Quick and convenient as you just make use of people who are closest and it is also cheaper and the most popular sampling method.
➖- the sample is unrepresentative of the target population, as it is drawn from a specific area, so the findings cannot be generalised
➖bias

Question 28

What is volunteer sampling? how is it done? and evaluate a strengths and weakness

Answer 28

• participants select themselves to be part of the sample
• advertisement in newspapers, or in person
  ➕- participants have selected themselves, so they are. Willing to contribute the time and effort. Also, they are more likely to engage more than people stopped in the street
  ➖- volunteer bias the participants may share certain traits/ respond to cues so generalisation is limited

Question 29

What are ethical issues?

Answer 29

Ethical Issues arise in psychology when are conflicts or dilemmas exist between participants rights and researchers need to gain valuable and meaningful findings. This conflict has implications for the safety and well-being of participants.

Question 30

What is the British Psychological Society’s code of ethics

Answer 30

The British psychological Society is A quasi-legal document to protect participants based on four principles, respect, competence, responsibility, and integrity.
Ethics committees weigh up costs (e.g. potential harm) and benefits (e.g. value of research) before deciding whether a study should go ahead.

Question 31

Outline 4 ethical issues that participants and researchers may face in psychology

Answer 31

Informed consent, deception, protection from harm, privacy and confidentiality.

Question 32

What is informed consent, and how can it be dealt with?

Answer 32

Informed consent- informed judgement about whether to fake parts that may reveal aims of the study.
This can be dealt with by giving participants a form detailing all information about participating which is then signed.
Forms of consent :
-presumptive consent asking a similar group of people if the study is acceptable then presuming or not.
-prior general consent asking participants for permission to be in a variety of studies, One of which deception is involved in
- retrospective consent- participants are asked for their consent after the study

Question 33

What is deception and how can it be dealt with?

Answer 33

-Deception is deliberately misleading or withholding information from participants at any point in the investigation so consent is not informed. However, researchers may deceive participants to hide the intentions of the study.
-This can be dealt with by giving the participants a debrief at the end of the study where they are advised of : *the right to withhold data, what the data will be used for,the true aims of the investigation. Therefore, if they are not comfortable, they can withdraw their data

Question 34

What is protection from harm and how can it be dealt with ?

Answer 34

-protection from harm - participants should be at no risk of physical or psychological harm, this can include being made to feel embarrassed, inadequate or stress.
-This can be dealt with : by giving participants a right to withdraw at each stage of the research process, reassuring The participants their behaviour is normal during the debrief and providing counselling if needed by participants.

Question 35

What is privacy and confidentiality, and how can it be dealt with?

Answer 35

Privacy and confidentiality - participants have the right to control information about themselves. If privacy ( personal data ) is invaded as a part of the study, then they should be kept confidential by the researcher.
This can be dealt with by The researchers using Numbers or false names to refer to participants. Participants Personal data cannot be shared with other researchers. If personal details are collected, they must be protected and not recorded.

Question 36

Evaluate The strengths and weaknesses of ethical guidelines in research.

Answer 36

➕: - participants are treated with respect and dignity
-more participants will come forward and take part in studies as they know they will not be harmed.
-confidentiality means that participants are more compliant and honest, meaning that the researcher will gain more reliable results.
➖: -too much informed consent can lead the participants to guess the aim
-if everyone is debriefed, it can be hard to find naive participants
-if participants withdraw sample sizes will become small
-it can restrict the range of research conducted

Question 37

What is a self-report technique?

Answer 37

any method in which a person is asked to state their opinion/ feelings on a particular topic. Such as questionnaires and interviews

Question 38

What is a questionnaire? And strength and weaknesses

Answer 38

A pre-set list of written questions to which a participant responds, they are always structured and can be used to assess the DV in experiments.
➕- they gather large amounts of data quickly, and the researcher does not need to be present when completed which reduces the effort involved and makes questionnaires cost-effective.
➕-straightforward to analyse, so can easily be converted to graphs and charts for comparison.
➖- response bias, respondents me favour a particular kind of response e.g. always agree which means that all respondents tend to reply in a similar way.
➖-responses may not always be truthful as respondents tend to present themselves in a positive light so social desirability bias is possible which reduces validity

Question 39

When designing questionnaires what should you avoid in order to write good questions?

Answer 39

• avoid jargon ( words used that are difficult to understand)
• avoid doublebarrelled questions ( do u agree that ….. AND …..)
  -avoid leading questions ( do you agree that…. Is ….)
  -avoid emotive language that indicates emotion

Question 40

What are closed questions? strengths and weaknesses ?

Answer 40

~CLOSED QUESTIONS- respondent has a fixed number of responses to pick from.
➕- easier to analyse, so graphs and charts can be produced for comparison which makes it easier to draw conclusions
➖-responses are restricted, so the answers may not represent true feelings which reduces validity of the findings.

Question 41

What type of closed questions are there?

Answer 41

-likely scale - respondent circle, whether they agree or disagree.
-The rating scale -respondents identify a value which represents the strength of feelings e.g. 1-10
-fixed choice- Respondents tick all boxes which apply to them or their opinion.

Question 42

What is an open question? strengths and weaknesses?

Answer 42

~OPEN QUESTIONS- Respondents provide own answers, expressed in words.- free to answer in any way.
Data produced is qualitative
➕- responses are not restricted so answers provide more details which have more external validity than statistics.
➖- difficult to analyse as a wider variety of answers is produced, so may be forced to reduce data to statistics

Question 43

What are the different types of interviews? + strengths and weaknesses.

Answer 43

-face-to-face or online interactions between an interviewer and an interviewee. interviews can be:
~STRUCTURED- A list of predetermined questions which are identical, asked in a fixed order.
➕- easy to replicate because of standardised format, also reduces differences between interviewers.
➖- interviewers cannot deviate from the topic, or explain the questions which may limit the richness of data collected.
~UNSTRUCTURED- no set questions, there is a general topic to be discussed, but the interaction is free-flowing, and the interviewee is encouraged to elaborate.
➕- there is greater flexibility as points can be followed up as they arise, so you’re more likely to gain more insight into interviewees worldview and collect unexpected information.
➖- increased risk of interviewer bias, as closer dialogue between interviewer and interviewee means that there is more opportunities for unconscious cues.
~SEMI-STRUCTURED-A list of questions that have been worked out in advance but interviewers Ask further questions based on previous answers.