3.2.1 Approaches in Psychology

Question 1

What was wundts aim?

Answer 1

In 1879 Wundt marked the beginning of scientific psychology, his aim was to analyse the nature of human consciousness under controlled conditions.
His method was known as introspection.

Question 2

Origins of psychology key terms ( introspection, structuralism and psychology)

Answer 2

~INTROSPECTION- documenting human consciousness as it happened/ the study of the human mind.
~STRUCTURALISM- breaking down human consciousness into basic structures: thoughts, behaviour and sensations.
~PSYCHOLOGY- the scientific study of the mind, behaviour and experience.

Question 3

Evaluate the work of Wundts ( strength highly controlled)

Answer 3

One strength of wundts work is that he used a highly controlled procedure.
He strictly controlled the environment in which introspection took place, and he standardised his procedure so that all participants received the same information and were tested in the same way.
This is good as it increases the overall reliability of the study and increases the replicability so that other Psychologists can find consistent findings as wundts did.

Question 4

Evaluate the work of Wundts (strength contribution to society)

Answer 4

One strength of Introspection is that it has had a useful contribution to society.
Wundts work has been influential in many psychological domains, his introduction of the scientific method and use of introspection has inspired other psychologists to apply it to more complex mental processes such as emotions, learning, language etc.
Therefore the concept still has some useful applications to psychology today

Question 5

Evaluate the work of Wundts (weakness subjective)

Answer 5

One limitation is that aspects of Wundts research are highly subjective.
Wundts found the participant observations were subject to bias as they relied on participants, revealing their own private subjective experience, and participants may not have reported all of their thoughts.
Therefore it could not be replicated and was therefore seen as unreliable, this meant that Watson was able to argue that introspection should play no part in a scientific psychology and behaviourism became the dominant approach in psychology.

Question 6

Evaluate the work of Wundts ( weakness -scientific)

Answer 6

A limitation of introspection is that it is not a scientific or valid way of measuring behaviour, as it is based on implicit thoughts and emotions, which is potentially outside of conscious awareness, and therefore it is inaccessible to the methods used.

Question 7

Explain how wundts method are or are not scientific

Answer 7

~RELIABLE- Wundts ask the participants to focus on every day stimulus ( same object everyday) and studied the reliability of the thoughts
~OBJECTIVE- participants can choose what thoughts to reveal to the researcher (demand characteristics)
~FALSIFIABLE- Wundts results could not be proved false as you can’t see other’s minds.

Question 8

What is the behaviourist approach? AO1

Answer 8

The behaviourist approach emphasises that all behaviour is learned and is not innate (natural).Watson and skinner used experimental methods in the research which involved controlled lab studies using animals as they believe they can generalise the learning processes to humans as they are similar. They believe behaviour can be learned in two ways, classical conditioning and operant conditioning.

Question 9

What did Pavlov propose and what was his research? AO1

Answer 9

~Pavlov (1927) proposed classical conditioning which is learning through association.
~Research - Pavlov showed how dogs could be conditioned to salivate to the sound of a bell, if that sound was repeatedly presented at the same time, as they were given food. Eventually, Pavlov’s dogs learned to associate the sound of the bell (neutral stimulus) with the food (unconditioned stimulus) , and would produce the salvation response every time they heard the bell.

Question 10

What did skinner propose and how does his research support this

Answer 10

~Skinner (1938) proposed operant conditioning which is learning as an active process whereby humans and animals operate on their environment, The behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences.
~research - skinner investigated operant conditioning using a skinners box. A rat was placed inside a special cage, when the rat pressed a lever a food pellet fell into the cage (reward). A reward led to the consequence being repeated, if pressing a lever would meant an animal would avoid an electric shock. The behaviour would also be repeated.

Question 11

The behaviourist approach key terms ( positive +negative reinforcement, punishment )

Answer 11

Skinner proposed that operant conditioning can happen in 3 ways
~POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT- receiving a reward when behaviour is performed , which increases the probability of the behaviour being repeated.
~NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT-avoiding something unpleasant when a behaviour is performed,which increases the probability of the behaviour being repeated.
~PUNISHMENT- an unpleasant consequence of behaviour which makes a behaviour less likely.

Question 12

Evaluate behaviourism (strength real world application)

Answer 12

One strength is behaviourist laws of learning, have a real world application.
The principles of conditioning have been applied to a wide range of real-world behaviours and problems for example, in prisons and psychiatric wards the token economy system is used as a reward for appropriate behaviour,the tokens are then exchanged for privileges (operant conditioning).
This increases the value of the behaviourist approach as it has a widespread application

Question 13

Evaluate behaviourism ( strength scientific method)

Answer 13

A strength of the behaviourist approach is that it emphasises on the scientific method. This method helps researchers reach more accurate conclusions on the behaviourism E.G. it insures that investigative methods are objective, systematic and replicable. This suggests the reliable data with credible scientific bases is produced.

Question 14

Evaluate behaviourism (weakness- environmental determinism)

Answer 14

One limitation is behaviourism is a form of environmental determinism. This approach sees all behaviour, as determined by past experiences that have been conditioned and ignores any influence that free will may have on behaviour.
Skinner argued that free will is an illusion and external influences guide behaviours.
This is an extreme position and ignores the influence of conscious decision-making processes on behaviour ( suggested by cognitive approach).

Question 15

Evaluate behaviourism ( weakness- nature)

Answer 15

A limitation of the behaviourist approach is that it ignores nature as an explanation for behaviour because behaviourist’s emphasise that nurture (our upbringing) influences our behaviour, but ignores nature (our biology).
It has been suggested that behaviours such as aggression are due to biological factors, such as a faulty MAOA gene. However, behaviourists would state that this is due to conditioning, they suggest when A person behaves aggressively and is punished they will stop being aggressive. Therefore the behaviourist approach needs further research to encourage a role for nature.

Question 16

What is vicarious reinforcement

Answer 16

Indirect learning that takes place when an individual observe someone else’s behaviour, this behaviour is more likely to be imitated if it is seen to be rewarded.

Question 17

What is the mediational process?

Answer 17

Cognitive factors which influence learning and come between stimulus and response.
There are 4 mediational processes which play a crucial role in learning :
-ATTENTION- whether behaviour is noticed
-RETENTION- whether behaviour is remembered
-MOTOR REPRODUCTION- the ability to perform the behaviour (from the observer)
-MOTIVATION-the will to perform the behaviour, usually depending on whether the behaviour was rewarded or punished.

Question 18

What is identification?

Answer 18

When an observer associates themselves with a role model and wants to be like the role model as they.
A person views someone as a role model if they posses similar characteristics to the observer, attractive and have high status.

Question 19

What is modelling and imitation?

Answer 19

~Modelling from the observers perspective- imitating the behaviour of a role model
~Modelling from the role models perspective- modelling the precise demonstration of a specific behaviour that may be imitated by an observer.
~imitation - copying the behaviour of others

Question 20

What research supports SLT?

Answer 20

Study A: Bandura et al. (1961)
Aim -was to investigate if children would imitate aggression of an adult
Procedure - Experimented on children aged 3-6 (72 children). Bandura recorded the behaviour of young children who watched an adult behave aggressively towards the Bobo doll. In investigation 1 The adult hit the doll with a hammer and shouted abuse at it. In investigation 2 the adult was non aggressive to the bobo doll. When these children ( investigation 1) were later observed playing with various toys, including a bobo doll, they behaved much more aggressively towards the doll and the other toys, Then the kids who had observed a non-aggressive adult.
Conclusion- children imitate specific behaviour that they witness. Boys were generally more aggressive than girls.

Question 21

Evaluate social learning theory ( strength - cognitive factors)

Answer 21

One strength is SLT emphasises the importance of cognitive factors. Behaviourists explanation of learning cannot offer a comprehensive account of human learning on their own because cognitive factors (characteristics of the person that affect learning) are omitted.
Humans store information about the behaviour of others which help them to make decisions.
This shows that SLT provides a more complete explanation of human learning than the behaviourist approach as it recognises the roles of mediational processes.

Question 22

Evaluate social learning theory ( strength Real world application)

Answer 22

Another strength is that SLT has real world application. SL principles can account for how individuals learn from those around them as well as the role of the media and this could explain how cultural differences are transmitted. This has proved useful in understanding a range of behaviours, such as how children come to understand the gender role by imitating role models in the media.
This increases the value of social learning theory as it can account for real-world behaviour

Question 23

Evaluate social learning theory ( weakness demand characteristics)

Answer 23

One Limitation is as SLT relies on evidence from contrived lab studies. Many of Banduras ideas were developed through observations of children’s behaviour in lab setting and this raises the problem of demand characteristics. The main purpose of of the doll is to hit it however the children in these studies may have been behaving as they thought it was expected.
Therefore the research only tells us a little bit about how children actually learn aggression in everyday life.

Question 24

What is the cognitive approach?

Answer 24

The cognitive approach aims to study internal mental processes such as memory, attention and perception. In order to do this inferences must be made as mental processes are private, and cannot be observed, so cognitive psychologists study them indirectly by making assumptions about these internal mental processes.
Most often psychologist use lab experiments to gain empirical data and control the conditions of the participant.

Question 25

What is a schema and how does it work?

Answer 25

Schemas are packages of information developed through experience. They act as a mental framework that help organise and interpret information in the brain. They are useful as they allow us to take shortcuts when interpreting a vast amount of information. As we get older, our schema become more detailed and sophisticated.
However schema causes us to exclude things that do not conform to our established ideas about the world, so we may develop stereotypes that are difficult to disconfirm.

Question 26

What is the theoretical model?

Answer 26

The theoretical model suggests that information flows through A sequence of stages that include input (info from our senses), storage (info is stored and processed) and retrieval (output).
However this model lacks mundane realism.

Question 27

What is the computer model? And what are the differences compared to the human mind?

Answer 27

The computer model refers to programs that can be run on a computer to imitate the human mind by doing so psychologists can test their ideas about information processing.
However although both the mind and a computer can retrieve information from the memory and present it, there are many differences such as :
-The human mind can process emotions, computer can’t
-information comes from what is observed in humans, whereas in computers, it is what is inputted
- morality does not exist in computers

Question 28

What is cognitive neuroscience and how has it emerged with The research that has taken place + what did the research find ?

Answer 28

-cognitive neuroscience is the scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes
-over the last 20 years fMRI and PET scans have allowed psychologist to describe the neurological basis of mental processing
-in research involving tasks that require the use of episodic and semantic memory Tulving et al (1994) were able to show how different types of long-term memory may be located on opposite sides of the pre-frontal cortex in the brain.

Question 29

Give an example of how cognitive neuroscience is useful in today society?

Answer 29

• cognitive neuroscientists have found a neurological basis for some mental disorders, due to scanning techniques, such as OCD, the parahippocampal gyrus has been associated with a OCD and appears to play a role in processing unpleasant emotions.
  -Furthermore computer-generated models are being used to analyse the brains wave patterns and create a mind maps of the brain, known as brain fingerprints, which could be used to determine whether someone is lying, for example in the courtroom

Question 30

Evaluate a weakness of the cognitive approach ( Machine reductionism)

Answer 30

A limitation of the cognitive approach is machine reductionism.
This is because the approach reduces the complex human mind to that of a computer. However although there are similarities between the operations of the human mind and computers Unlike computers, humans are driven by conscience, fear of consequences, emotion and motivation.
For example in eyewitness accounts, these factors are not considered within the computer analogy.
This suggests that Machine reductionism may weaken the validity of the cognitive approach.

Question 31

Evaluate a strength of the cognitive approach ( real world application)

Answer 31

A strength of the cognitive approach is that it can be applied to everyday life.
The cognitive approach has been applied to a wide range of practical and theoretical contexts, for example it has contributed to artificial intelligence and has been used in the treatment of depression through cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT).
This supports the value of the cognitive approach .

Question 32

Evaluate a strength of the cognitive approach ( scientific and objective methods)

Answer 32

A strength of the cognitive approach is that it uses scientific and objective methods.
Cognitive psychologists, always employ controlled and rigourous methods of study, for example, lab studies in order to infer cognitive processes at work.This suggests that reliable data with credible scientific basis is produced. Therefore, this increases the reliability of the cognitive approach.

Question 33

Evaluate a weakness of the cognitive approach. ( external validity)

Answer 33

A weakness of the cognitive approach is it may not represent every day experience.
The use of inference means cognitive psychology can occasionally be too abstract and theoretical. Furthermore, research often uses artificial stimuli such as word lists.
Therefore research on cognitive processes may lack external validity and cannot represent every day experience.

Question 34

What is the biological approach?

Answer 34

The biological approach suggests that all psychological concepts are biological first. This includes factors such as genetic, biochemical, viral, neural or evolutionary.
Therefore it is vital to study neurochemistry genes and the nervous system to understand human behaviour.

Question 35

What is neurochemistry, and how does it have a basis on our behaviour?

Answer 35

Neurochemistry refers to the action of chemicals in the brain, These chemicals (neurotransmitters) fire across synapses in the brain whilst carrying certain chemical messages to make us think/behave in certain ways.
An imbalance of neurotransmitters may be a cause of some mental disorders such as OCD ( due to lack of serotonin) and schizophrenia ( due to lack of dopamine).

Question 36

What is the genetic basis of behaviour, and how is it investigated?

Answer 36

Psychological characteristics ( eg intelligence) are inherited. This is investigated through the use of twin studies. Twins are either monozygotic (100% shared genes) or dizygotic (50% shared genes). If behaviours were inherited, we would expect monozygotic twins to have exactly the same traits as they must share the gene that causes such traits.

Question 37

What evidence is there for genetic basis of behaviour?

Answer 37

Evidence of a genetic basis = there is higher concordance rate among identical twins than non identical twins.
This is because identical twins share 100% of the genes compared to non-identical twins, who only share around 50%.

Question 38

GENOTYPE and PHENOTYPE differences

Answer 38

-GENOTYPE -a persons actual genetic make up [DNA]
-PHENOTYPE - the way that genes are expressed through physical, behavioural and psychological characteristics
The phenotype is influenced by environmental factors e.g phenylketonuria disease can be prevented by a restricted diet. This suggests that much of human behaviour depends on the interaction of nature and nurture.

Question 39

How does the theory of evolution explain behaviour?

Answer 39

-Charles Darwin (1859) proposed the theory of natural selection to explain the fact of evolution.
- any genetically determined behaviour that enhances survival and reproduction will be passed on to future generations - these genes are described as adaptive and give the possessor and their offspring advantages, these traits may change over time depending on your environment.

Question 40

Give an example of how the theory of evolution increases survival chance

Answer 40

Skin colour - individuals with a darker skin tone, have a lower risk of getting cancer and are therefore suited for hotter environments, such as countries near the equator
Aggression - men with aggressive features tend to protect their partner and pass on these genes to the children. This was helpful in the olden days.

Question 41

Evaluate a strength on the biological approach ( Real world application)

Answer 41

One strength of the biological approach is that it can be used in real-world applications.
Understanding of neurochemical processes in the brain has led to the use of psychoactive drugs to treat serious mental disorders.
For example drugs that treat clinical depression, increase levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin at the synapse and reduce depressive symptoms.
Therefore people with depression are able to manage the condition and live a relatively normal life rather than being confined to a hospital

Question 42

Evaluate a strength of the biological approach ( Scientific methods)

Answer 42

Another strength of the biological approach is that the use of scientific methods.
In order to investigate both genetic and neurochemical factors. The biological approach makes use of a range of precise and objective methods. These include scanning techniques such as fMRI, which assess biological processes in ways that are not open to bias.
Therefore The biological approach is based on objective and reliable data.

Question 43

Evaluate a limitation of the biological approach (nurture)

Answer 43

The approach ignores the nurture side of debate. This is because it suggests that as family members have genetic similarities, any similarity in behaviour must be genetic (nature). But environmental factors are a confounding variable e.g the concordance rates are never 100% in findings like Nedstat’s so environmental factors must play a role (the diathesis- stress model). This suggests that the biological approach does not fully explain behaviour. Therefore, further research is needed to include nurture in the approach.

Question 44

Evaluate a limitation of the biological approach ( determinist)

Answer 44

A limitation is that biological explanations are determinist.
They tend to see human behaviour as governed by internal genetic causes over which we have no control. However, the phenotype is heavily influenced by the environment, not even genetically identical twins look and think the same. This suggests that biological view is too simplistic and ignores the mediating effect of the environment.