3.2 Explanations of Aggression

Question 1

What does the ethological explanation of aggression suggest?

Answer 1

It suggests that the main function of aggression is adaptive e.g to establish dominance hierarchies or territory

Question 2

What is ritualistic aggression and two examples?

Answer 2

• A series of behaviours carried out in a set order
• e.g displaying claws/teeth, threatening facial expressions

Question 3

What is an innate releasing mechanism?

Answer 3

An inbuilt physiological process or structure e.g neurons in the brain

Question 4

What is a fixed action pattern?

Answer 4

A sequence of stereotypes, pre-programmed set of behaviours tiggered by an innate releasing mechanism

Question 5

What are the 2 ethological assumptions about aggression?

Answer 5

• Instinct, innate, largely genetically determined (not learned)
• Findings from animals can be extrapolated to humans due to natural selection

Question 6

What are ritual appeasement displays as suggested by Lorenz?

Answer 6

This indicates an acceptance of defeat and inhibits aggressive behaviour in the victor, preventing any damage to the loser

Question 7

What is the role of an innate releasing mechanism?

Answer 7

• An environmental stimulus e.g facial expressions triggers the IRM to release a specific set of behaviours (FAP)

Question 8

What are the 6 main features of fixed action patterns (FAP)?

Answer 8

- Stereotyped (unchanging behaviour sequences)
- Universal (same behaviour found within that species)
- Unaffected by learning (same for every individual regardless of experience)
- Ballistic (behaviour follows an inevitable course which cannot be altered once triggered)
- Single-purpose (behaviour only occurs in a specific situation)
- Response (to an identifiable specific sign stimulus)

Question 9

Describe Tinbergen’s (1951) study and his findings

Answer 9

• During the spring mating season, male sticklebacks develop a red spot on their underbelly
• The sign of a red spot on another male triggers the IRM
• He presented sticklebacks with a series of wooden models of different shapes
• Regardless of shape if model had a red spot, male stickleback would act aggressively
• But if there was no red spot, there was no aggression even if model was realistic
• Also found FAP’s were unchanging between encounters

Question 10

AO3 for ethological explanation of aggression

Answer 10

1. Research support: genes and evolution related, evidence supports a genetic basis for aggression, Brunner et al (1993) showed MAOA-L gene associated with aggression in humans, twin and adoption studies show genetic component, in Wilson & Daly (1996) aggression viewed as adaptive and therefore genetically based, suggests an innate basis, ethological explanation correct by suggesting aggression genetically determined, heritable and adaptive

2. Ritualistic aggression: aggression against same species not ritualistic, Woodall (2010) observed four-year war where community of male chimps killed all members of another group, violence continued despite victims offering appeasement signals, did not inhibit the aggressive behaviour in the attackers as predicted by the thological explanation

3. FAP not fixed: Lorenz fixed view of FAP outdated, saw as innate and unchanging, Hunt (1973) showed FAP’s influenced by environmental factors and learning, duration of FAP behaviours vary depending on individual and encounter, means they are modifiable by experience, ethologists prefer term ‘modal behaviour pattern’, aggressive behaviour more flexible than suggested

Question 11

What does the evolutionary explanation of aggression suggest?

Answer 11

• Sexual jealousy is stronger in males which drives them to employ aggressive strategies to retain partners and prevent them from straying
• Investment into an offspring that is not theirs contributes to the survival of a rivals genes and leaves fewer resources for future offspring

Question 12

What are the 2 mate retention strategies suggested by Wilson and Daly (1996)?

Answer 12

- Direct guarding: male vigilance over partners behaviour e.g stalking their whereabouts
- Negative inducements: issuing threats of dire consequences for infidelity

Question 13

Describe the study of physical violence against partners by Wilson et al (1995)

Answer 13

• Asked women to report male retention strategies in their partners
• Measured by extent they agreed to statements e.g ‘He insists on knowing where and who you are with at all times’
• Women who did agree with statements were twice as likely to have experienced physical violence from partners
• Of these women, 73% required medical attention and 53% feared for their lives

Question 14

What does the evolutionary explanation of bullying suggest?

Answer 14

• Bullying occurs because of a power imbalance
• Suggests bullying as an adaptive strategy to increase chances of survival by promoting own health and opportunities for reproduction

Question 15

What is cuckoldry?

Answer 15

A male who invests parental effort in offspring that are not genetically his

Question 16

What does the evolutionary explanation of bullying suggest about male bullying?

Answer 16

• Characteristics associated with bullying behaviour is attractive to females e.g dominance
• Males who gain reputation for being tough less likely to experience aggression themselves
• Therefore bullying behaviour is naturally selected as it leads to greater reproductive success

Question 17

What does the evolutionary explanation of bullying suggest about female bullying?

Answer 17

• Bullying occurs within a relationship as a method of controlling a partner
• Women using bullying behaviour to secure partners fidelity so they continue to provide resources for offspring
• Behaviour is naturally selected as it enhances reproductive success

Question 18

AO3 for evolutionary explanations of aggression

Answer 18

1. Gender differences: explanation for why males and females differ in uses for aggression, differences could be due to socialisation or adaptive strategies, Campbell (1999) not adaptive for females with offspring to be physically aggressive as can put their survival at risk, verbal aggression more adaptive to retain a partner, explanation why females more verbal than physical

2. Cultural differences: in some cultures aggression appears non-existent, Thomas (1958) studied Kung San people, found they have negative attitudes towards aggression, was discouraged from childhood and therefore rare, those who use it have status and reputation in community diminished, cultural and social norms have an impact

3. Real-world application: can be used to reduce bullying, one approach is addressing perceived deficiencies, Ellis et al (2016) suggests alternative that bullying is adaptive, ‘meaningful roles’ anti-bullying intervention aims to increase cost of bullying and rewards of prosocial alternatives e.g giving bullies roles in school that provide source of status, viewing bullying as adaptive leads to more effective interventions